20TH CENTURY EUROPE

Pre-World War I Era (1900–1913)

• Second Industrial Revolution: Rapid technological advancement and industrial growth, including innovations in transportation (automobiles, airplanes) and communication (telephone, radio).

• Empires Dominating Europe: Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, and German Empire held significant power.

• Balkan Tensions: A volatile region, with nationalist movements against Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian control, sowing seeds of conflict.

World War I and Aftermath (1914–1919)

• World War I (1914–1918): Triggered by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Major alliances: Allied Powers (Britain, France, Russia, later the U.S.) vs. Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire).

  • Key Battles: Battle of Verdun, Battle of the Somme, Gallipoli Campaign.

  • Consequences: Over 16 million deaths, economic devastation, and the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires.

• Treaty of Versailles (1919): Ended the war; imposed harsh reparations on Germany, causing resentment and economic hardship.

Interwar Period (1920–1938)

• Russian Revolution (1917): Transitioned into the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state.

• Economic Instability: Hyperinflation in Germany, especially during the early 1920s; Great Depression (1929–1939) deepened poverty across Europe.

• Rise of Totalitarianism:

  • Italy: Benito Mussolini established the first fascist government (1922).

  • Germany: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power, exploiting economic despair and nationalist sentiment (1933).

  • Spain: Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) saw Francisco Franco’s fascist victory.

• League of Nations (1920): Formed to prevent future conflicts but lacked enforcement power.

World War II (1939–1945)

• Axis vs. Allies: Germany, Italy, and Japan formed the Axis Powers; Allied Powers included Britain, the Soviet Union, the United States, and others.

• Key Events:

  • 1939: Germany invaded Poland, starting the war.

  • 1941: Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union; attack on Pearl Harbor brought the U.S. into the war.

  • Holocaust: Systematic genocide of six million Jews and millions of others.

  • 1944: D-Day invasion of Normandy by Allied forces.

  • 1945: Germany surrendered in May; the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki forced Japan’s surrender in August.

• Aftermath: Europe was left devastated, with millions dead and widespread destruction.

Post-War Reconstruction and the Cold War (1945–1991)

• Formation of the United Nations (1945): Established to promote peace and cooperation.

• Division of Europe:

  • Western Bloc: Capitalist democracies aligned with the U.S. (e.g., Britain, France, West Germany).

  • Eastern Bloc: Communist states under Soviet influence (e.g., East Germany, Poland).

  • Iron Curtain: Metaphorical division between the two blocs.

• Marshall Plan (1948): U.S. economic aid to rebuild Western Europe.

• NATO and Warsaw Pact: Military alliances created during the Cold War to counter each other.

• Proxy Wars: The Cold War extended to conflicts like the Korean War, Vietnam War, and Afghanistan.

Cultural and Social Movements (1950s–1980s)

• Decolonization: Many European empires (e.g., Britain, France) granted independence to colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

• Civil Rights and Protests: Inspired by global movements, youth uprisings like the 1968 protests in France demanded social and political reform.

• Feminist Movement: Women gained greater rights, with milestones like the right to vote in many countries and advancements in workplace equality.

• Technological Advancements: Space exploration began with the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik (1957), followed by global innovations in computing and communication.

European Integration (1950s–Present)

• European Coal and Steel Community (1951): Fostered economic cooperation among France, Germany, Italy, and others.

• Treaty of Rome (1957): Established the European Economic Community (EEC), promoting free trade and economic growth.

• European Union (1993): The Maastricht Treaty formally created the EU, introducing political integration, a single market, and the euro currency.

End of the Cold War and Eastern Europe’s Transformation (1980s–1991)

• Mikhail Gorbachev’s Reforms: Glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) attempted to reform the Soviet Union but accelerated its collapse.

• Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989): Symbolized the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe and the reunification of Germany.

• Collapse of the Soviet Union (1991): Marked the end of the Cold War, resulting in the independence of 15 former Soviet republics.

Late 20th Century Developments (1990s)

• Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001): Following the breakup of Yugoslavia, ethnic conflicts erupted, resulting in atrocities such as the Bosnian genocide.

• Expansion of the EU and NATO: Former Eastern Bloc countries began joining these organizations, seeking closer ties with Western Europe.

• Globalization: Europe became increasingly interconnected through economic, cultural, and technological networks.