Psychology – The Scientific Method and Its Foundations
Psychology Textbook Summarizes 1.1 The Science of Psychology
Definition of Psychology: Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behaviour, thought, and experience, and how they are influenced by physical, mental, social, and environmental factors.
Scientific Method in Psychology:
Psychology relies on the scientific method to understand human behaviour, involving systematic observation, measurement, and experimentation.
Key Goals of Psychology:
Understanding how different brain structures work together to produce behaviour.
Exploring the interaction between genetics (nature) and environment (nurture) in shaping human identity.
Investigating how past experiences influence current thoughts and actions.
Examining the impact of social groups (family, culture, crowds) on individual behaviour.
Analyzing how feelings of control affect happiness and health.
Studying factors that contribute to psychological disorders.
Biopsychosocial Model: This model integrates biological, psychological, and social factors to comprehend behaviour.
Scientific Literacy: Understanding and applying scientific principles and methods to evaluate information critically.
Critical Thinking: Involves applying steps such as:
Analyzing arguments
Identifying biases
Evaluating evidence to draw reasoned conclusions.
Scientific Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspects of the natural world based on a comprehensive body of evidence.
Complexity of Human Behaviour: Human behaviour is influenced by multiple factors and is often misinterpreted due to complex social cues and digital communications.
Interconnectedness of Psychological Factors: Different psychological factors interrelate and should be examined from multiple perspectives, including biological, sociocultural, and cognitive. Understanding these aspects contributes to better comprehension of personal and others' behaviours, promoting empathy and insight into human interactions.
Scientific Method
Being a scientist involves more than just performing experiments; it requires adherence to a systematic approach.
The Scientific Method:
Essential for conducting science across subjects.
Steps include:
Observing: Collect data and note phenomena.
Predicting: Formulate hypotheses based on observations.
Testing: Conduct experiments to test these hypotheses.
The scientific method is a dynamic process involving ongoing interactions between hypothesis testing and theory construction, aiding in developing theories that explain observations and predict future outcomes.
Hypotheses and Predictions
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about observable processes that can be supported or rejected but never definitively proven.
Falsifiability: A hypothesis must be precise enough to be proved false, aiding in replication and validation of results.
Examples of Scientific Hypotheses:
People become less likely to help a stranger if others are present.
Alcohol reduces sleep quality.
Exercise improves memory.
Pseudoscience: Ideas presented as scientific but lacking adherence to scientific principles; examples include astrology and psychic predictions, which are non-testable and often vague.
Astrology Critique: Astrologers often make general predictions that are challenging to test scientifically, yet a significant portion of the population believes in astrology's influence on behaviour.
Theories and Explanations
Theories vs. Hypotheses: A theory explains a broad range of observations and generates new hypotheses, integrating numerous findings into a coherent whole, whereas a hypothesis is a specific prediction testing parts of a theory.
Building Theories: Theories are constructed from repeatedly tested and confirmed hypotheses, which may be supported or disproved by new evidence.
Self-Correcting Nature of Science: Science corrects itself; unsupported hypotheses prompt re-evaluation of theories, ensuring flawed ideas are soon discarded.
Common Misconceptions:
Theories are not merely opinions or beliefs.
Not all theories are equally plausible; good theories help explain previous research and lead to more testable hypotheses.
The validity of a theory is independent of the number of believers in it (e.g., the theory of evolution remains robust despite its mixed acceptance among the general public).
Unique Approaches in Science
Each science, including psychology, has unique challenges and approaches, particularly in understanding behaviour influenced by biological, psychological, and social factors.
The Biopsychosocial Model
Psychologists employ multiple perspectives under the biopsychosocial model to understand thoughts and behaviours:
Biological Influences: Involve factors such as brain structures, chemicals, and hormones, as well as external substances like drugs.
Psychological Influences: Include elements like memories, emotions, and personalities, shaping responses to situations and people.
Sociocultural Influences: Encompass family, peers, ethnicity, and culture impacting behaviour significantly.
These factors concurrently interact, exemplified in eating behaviour where biological factors (hormones signal hunger), psychological factors (thoughts about food cause salivation), and sociocultural influences (invitations can sway decisions to eat).
Understanding Behaviour: Mandates an investigation of multiple perspectives and how they interact.
Building Scientific Literacy
Scientific Literacy: Involves understanding, analyzing, and applying scientific information effectively, including:
Learning new information and terminology.
Interpreting new terms and identifying additional resources for information.
Evaluating whether ideas have been scientifically tested and assessing proper study designs.
Importance of Questioning:
Essential for distinguishing between reliable information and claims requiring caution.
Enhances critical analysis regarding information presented by politicians, corporations, and the media.
Generalization: Applying scientific study results across different contexts and illustrating that studies conducted in controlled environments can yield insights applicable to broader behaviours.
Working the Scientific Literacy Model
Massed vs. Distributed Learning:
Massed learning- studying in a long continuous session, whereas distributed learning involves spreading sessions over several days.
Research indicates distributed learning significantly enhances retention compared to massed learning.
Scientific Evidence from Ebbinghaus: Studies show distributed learning tends to improve memory, with participants in distributed conditions performing better than those in massed conditions.
Attention and Repetition: In massed learning scenarios, repetitive material reduces attention; distributed learning mitigates this by inducing some forgetting, keeping learners engaged.
Real-World Applications: Studies among children show that distributed learning, i.e., teaching over multiple days, enhances retention compared to cramming all lessons in one day. This principle can improve study habits and academic performance, especially beneficial in clinical contexts like memory rehabilitation after brain injuries.
Critical Thinking, Curiosity, and Skepticism
Information Overload: Today's information environment presents abundant credible and non-credible claims; it’s vital to recognize that not all information is true, regardless of how sophisticated it may seem.
Examples of Misinformation:
Claims of fish oil supplements resolving memory issues in the elderly.
Personal anecdotes justifying corporal punishment.
Misleading comparisons asserting COVID-19 is akin to the common flu.
Importance of Critical Thinking: Essential for scientific literacy, emphasizing curiosity and skepticism towards evaluating claims rather than reflexively accepting them.
Core Habits and Skills for Critical Thinking:
Be Curious: Simple answers may oversimplify complex realities. E.g., resting after a stroke may hinder recovery.
Examine Evidence: Not all studies possess equal quality; e.g., flawed research linking vaccines to autism.
Examine Assumptions and Biases: Reflect on your own and others’ biases, such as funding sources shaping research outcomes.
Avoid Overly Emotional Thinking: Recognize when emotions cloud objective evaluation, like responses to gender differences in cognitive abilities.
Tolerate Ambiguity: Acknowledge the complexity of issues; e.g., multiple factors contribute to depression with no single cause.
Consider Alternative Viewpoints: Explore diverse interpretations of evidence, as seen in various sleep function theories.
Developing Critical Thinking: Skills enhancing critical thinking can be acquired through conscious effort and frequent practice, facilitating discernment in evaluating unbelievable stories and claims.
Myths in Mind
Parsimony Principle: Prefer the simplest explanation; psychological process explanations (e.g., hallucinations) are more straightforward than assumptions of alien abductions.
Multiple Explanations: Psychologists acknowledge various interpretations for phenomena; e.g., reports of alien abductions surge after sci-fi releases, with such individuals possibly prone to fantastical thinking or memory errors.
Value of Simple Explanations: Both simple and complex explanations hold value if derived through critical thinking and the scientific method.
Module 1.1 Summary
Scientific Method:
Scientific theories lead to hypotheses, establishing specific, testable predictions.
Validating hypotheses supports theories; lack of support may necessitate modification or dismissal of the theory.
Scientific Literacy:
Encompasses understanding and critical thinking about scientific content.
Key inquiries include: What do we know? How does science explain this? Can we assess the evidence? Why is it pertinent?
Biopsychosocial Model:
Integrates biological (brain, genetics), psychological (thinking, emotion, memory), and sociocultural factors in behaviour analysis.
Critical Thinking Steps:
Curiosity, evidence examination, biases, emotional regulation, ambiguity tolerance, and alternative perspectives are essential for critical thought.
Scientific Theory:
A scientific theory provides overarching explanations for varied observations, integrating diverse findings into a cohesive framework.
Theories differ from mere opinions or beliefs; their legitimacy is independent of popular belief.
1.2 How Psychology Became a Science
Ancient Egypt's Contributions: Military doctors documented brain injury patterns, linking brain damage to behavioural changes.
Philosophical and Scientific Influences: Psychology's evolution encompassed questions regarding the interplay of environmental, genetic, and psychosocial processes in behaviour.
Key Questions: Examined the nature of behaviour determinism versus individual free will.
Historical Context: Psychology's study progressed from early inquiries, continuing to address fundamental behavioural questions.
Psychology’s Philosophical and Scientific Origins
Science as Philosophy of Knowledge: Grounded in empiricism (knowledge from experience) and determinism (lawful cause-effect relations affecting events).
Empiricism: Knowledge gleaned through observable experience, emphasizing replicability.
Determinism: Governed events through physical laws, encompassing internal (e.g., genetics) and external (e.g., cultural) factors influencing behaviour.
Historical Foundations of Psychological Science: Melding empiricism and determinism enhances understanding of behaviours at diverse levels, from neurons to societal constructs.
Influences From the Ancients
Philosophical Insights into Behaviour: Ancient Egyptian doctors established links between brain injuries and behavioural impairments, marking the early biology-behaviour connection.
Hippocrates created the first personality classification scheme based on four bodily humours: blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm.
Galen's Refinement: Galen proposed these humours shaped stable temperaments:
Sanguine (Blood): Impulsive, energetic, aggressive.
Choleric (Yellow Bile): Independent, perfectionist, introverted.
Phlegmatic (Phlegm): Quiet, relaxed, content.
Decline of Ancient Thought: The golden age of Greek/Roman thought ended leading to the Dark Ages with minimal behavioural advancement.
Scientific Revolution Limitations: Psychology did not immediately benefit from the scientific revolution (1500s-1600s) due to prevailing dualism separating mind/body.
Zeitgeist Concept: Explains delayed psychological development as a scientific discipline.
Key Historical Milestones in Psychology
Late 1700s: Franz Mesmer’s techniques for treating mental illness.
1850: Gustav Fechner’s studies of psychophysics.
1859: Darwin’s natural selection theory.
1861: Paul Broca’s Broca’s area discovery.
1879: Wilhelm Wundt’s first psychological laboratory establishment.
1880s: Francis Galton’s anthropometric studies.
1885: Hermann Ebbinghaus’s memory work.
1890: William James's publication of Principles of Psychology.
1890: James Mark Baldwin’s inaugural psychology program.
1892: Foundation of the American Psychological Association (APA).
1900: Sigmund Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams.
Early 1900s: Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning techniques.
1905: Alfred Binet’s intelligence assessment.
1911: Edward Thorndike’s instrumental learning principles.
1912: Max Wertheimer’s gestalt psychology principles.
1913: John B. Watson’s behaviourism emergence.
1934: Wilder Penfield’s neural mapping.
1936: Kurt Lewin’s social psychological formulations.
1938: B.F. Skinner’s Behavior of Organisms.
1939: Canadian Psychological Association founded.
1949: Donald Hebb’s The Organization of Behaviour.
1951: Carl Rogers’s client-centered therapy.
- 1952: First Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders published.1967: Ulrich Neisser's Cognitive Psychology.
1971: B.F. Skinner’s Beyond Freedom and Dignity.
1978: Herbert Simon awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for cognitive psychology.
1980s-1990s: Widespread adoption of brain-imaging techniques.
1990: Formation of the Canadian Society for Brain, Behaviour, and Cognitive Science.
1990s: Rise of neuroscience and biological psychology.
2003: Completion of the Human Genome Project.
Influences from Physics
Gustav Fechner: A physicist who explored sensation and perception; termed psychophysics to study the interplay between physical energy and psychological experiences.
Experiments: Investigated perception of weight comparing weights held in different hands.
Key Finding: The perception of weight contrast, where a lighter weight feels heavier when added to a lighter load than when added to a heavier one.
Developed Equation: Created formulae for calculating perceived changes in weight, applicable to sensory experiences like brightness/loudness, providing the groundwork for modern perceptual studies.
Influences from Evolutionary Theory
Charles Darwin's Studies: Examined plant and animal variations, noting adaptations lead to survival advantages.
Darwin’s Natural Selection Theory:
Asserts genetically inherited traits supporting survival and reproduction are likely preserved in future generations.
Traits favored across different environments contribute to Earth's diversity, including behavioural traits influenced similarly.
Behaviours such as memory and social bonding were critical for ancestral survival, traits retained today, exemplifying Darwin’s impact on psychology.
Influences from Medicine
Medicine's Role: Contributed to biological psychology and clinical practice, focusing on diagnosing and treating psychological disorders.
Localization of Brain Function: Specific brain regions linked to distinct mental functions.
Phrenology: Initially promoted by Franz Gall, suggesting mental traits connect with skull bumps (discredited now but led to investigating brain-function correspondence).
Scientific Studies: Evidence arose from brain injuries; notable examples include:
Paul Broca’s findings on speech production affected by left frontal lobe damage.
Karl Wernicke’s discovery of impaired language comprehension from damage in another left hemisphere area.
Cases depicting behavioural changes post-frontal lobe injury.
Franz Mesmer: Introduced magnets for disease treatment, broaching concepts like the placebo effect and hypnosis.
Sigmund Freud: Pioneered psychoanalysis, using hypnosis to unveil unconscious influences on behaviour highlighting early life experience's significance, despite controversy surrounding some theories.
Social Science Influences
Influences of Social Sciences: Fields such as economics, sociology, and anthropology imparted statistical methodologies to psychology.
Sir Francis Galton: Early pioneer in perception measurement and behaviour statistics, asserting heredity accounted for differences.
Heredity and Achievement: Noted strong familial connections in achievement levels.
Eminence Measurement: Galton devised methods assessing eminence as a blend of capability and achievements across contexts.
Nature vs. Nurture: Emphasized heredity while downplaying environmental impacts on behaviours.
Eugenics: Advocated for improving human traits through selective breeding, which profoundly affected many lives and influenced dark ideologies, including those of Hitler.
Modern Biological Psychology: With brain-imaging advances, insights into biological bases of behaviour have grown, distancing from discredited eugenic ideologies.
The Beginnings of Contemporary Psychology
Historical Progression: Before established as its own field, behaviours were studied by various scientists.
Integrated Insights: Researchers like Darwin and Fechner conducted studies now founded on psychological frameworks.
By the late 1800s, acceptance of human behaviour studies persisted, culminating in psychology's emergence as a distinct discipline, refining through diverse methodologies.
Structuralism and Functionalism
Wilhelm Wundt: Lauded as physics' counterpoint, establishing psychology as an independent scientific discipline by inaugurating the first laboratory for studying human behaviour in 1879 in Leipzig.
Research Method: Major reliance on introspection for trained observers reporting sensations from stimuli, akin to ‘atoms of mental experience’.
Reaction Time Studies: Utilized to ascertain mental effort, concluding cognitive processes necessitate time to respond.
Edward Tichener: Wundt’s student who developed structuralism aimed at mapping consciousness’ structure akin to elemental tables in chemistry.
William James: Introduced functionalism concentrating on behaviour and consciousness's purpose, influenced by Darwin’s ideals of evolutionary adaptation.
Functionalism’s Legacy: Supplied groundwork for evolutionary psychology to interpret modern behaviours through evolutionary lenses.
Pioneering Objective: Early psychology researchers sought natural scientific methods for behaviour understanding, which augmented psychology as a scientific field by the early 20th century.
The Rise of Behaviourism
Classical Conditioning (CC): Edwin Twitmyer and Ivan Pavlov independently demonstrated organisms can learn event anticipation through CC.
Twitmyer's Findings: Bell elicited a knee-jerk reflex absent of hammer strikes.
Pavlov’s Observations: Noteworthy responses from dogs salivating upon the arrival of technicians linked with food delivery.
Behaviourism’s Focus: Dominated early 20th-century North American psychology, concentrating on observable behaviours without delving into mental processes. John B. Watson served as a primary proponent, advocating psychology's objective science approach aimed at behaviour prediction/control.
Watson's Beliefs: Proposed all behaviours stem from conditioning; under the right environmental circumstances, he believed one could shape any infant into any specialist irrespective of innate characteristics.
Research Application: Watson highlighted that fundamental research should dovetail with real-world implementation, demonstrating practical solutions derivable from basic research.
Advertising Techniques Derived from Behaviorism
Watson’s Transition: Following a public scandal, Watson shifted from academia to advertising.
Advertising Approaches: Applied scientific techniques to foster positive emotional associations rather than mere consumer product promotion.
Influence on Modern Marketing: Behaviourist principles underlie modern advertising methodologies, employing attractive imagery and emotional narratives, observable in ads featuring appealing individuals, catchy scenarios, and delightful visuals.
Radical Behaviourism
Edward Thorndike's Contribution: Emphasized how behaviour frequencies alter with positive outcomes or satisfaction experiences.
B.F. Skinner: Expanded upon Thorndike's principles with radical behaviourism focusing on organ responses to rewards/punishments, suggesting behaviours are reinforced by their consequences.
Skinner’s Experiments: Conducted controlled animal experiments (rats/pigeons) in reinforcement chambers to assess behaviour under different reward schedules.
General Behaviour Equality: Belief that principles governing rewards and punishments apply universally across species, blurring distinctions between human and animal behaviours.
Social and Cultural Influences
Behaviourism and cognitive psychology typically overlook social stimuli’s role influencing behaviours.
Norman Triplett's Research: Early social psychology research indicated cyclists perform better in group settings.
Social Psychology Revival: Emergence during WWII and Holocaust underscored social factors driving human behaviour.
Research aimed at interrogating how ordinary individuals could be molded into ruthless guards or the psychological effects of propaganda.
Personality Psychology: Investigated how personality traits shape responses to collective settings, asserting individual variations manifest in social interactions.
Kurt Lewin: Proposed behaviour is a function of individual and environmental interplay articulated as ( B = F(I, E) ).
Lewin's Formula: Demonstrated that behavioural understanding necessitates consideration of individual differences and contextual nuances, as illustrated by varying personalities functioning in contrasting social environments (e.g., differences at parties versus intimate gatherings).
The Cognitive Revolution
Behaviourism vs. Cognitive Perspective: Behaviourism focused predominantly on behaviour observation, while European psychologists underscored mental processes' importance, epitomized within cognitive psychology.
Pioneers in Cognitive Research: Hermann Ebbinghaus's memory studies and Frederick Bartlett's exploration of memory in the context of cultural influences exemplify early cognitive insights.
Gestalt Psychology: This movement emphasized holistic perception studies, positing that understanding needs to transcend mere dissection of experiences into components.
Computational Analogies: The advent of computers inspired mind comprehension analogous to software running on biological hardware.
Noam Chomsky's Insight: Challenged behaviourism by arguing grammar complexities require recognition of intangible mental processes.
Cognitive Psychology Emergence: Formally named by Ulrich Neisser in 1968, focusing on mental functions such as memory, reasoning, and language through rigorous experimentation.
Emergence of Humanistic Psychology
By the mid-20th century, psychology was largely dominated by behaviourism and Freudian analysis, the former interpreting human existence as rooted in learnt behaviours and conditioning while the latter emphasized unconscious forces shaping human experience.
Both perspectives suggested individuals possessed limited agency over their beliefs and choices.
Humanistic Psychology: Subsequently arose as a contrasting view, accentuating individuality, autonomy, rational thought, and intrinsic distinctions between humans and animals.
Key Figures: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow focused on humanity's positive traits and results leading to fulfilling lives; they emphasized understanding personal experiences rather than diagnostics or labelling.
Motivational Drive: Rogers and Maslow believed in human potential for self-improvement and growth, setting the stage for exploring mental well-being through self-understanding, diverging from traditional psychoanalytical and behaviourist views.
The Brain and Behaviour
Donald Hebb’s Influence: Concentrated on learning-related alterations of brain cells, proposing that consistent stimulation leads to strengthened neural connections durably—a concept summarized in "cells that fire together wire together," known as Hebb’s law.
Hebb’s Law Impact: This principle links memory formation and cellular activity, asserting that behaviour can be analyzed on cellular to the entire brain scale.
Wilder Penfield’s Contributions: Developed surgical methods for epilepsy treatment, innovating techniques for moderately removing seizure initiators without damaging pivotal brain regions.
Mapping of Brain Functions: Worked alongside Herbert Jasper to electrically stimulate different cerebral parts on conscious patients, documenting experiences and building sensory/motor cortices maps.
Challenges to Behaviourist Paradigms: His findings suggested that personal subjective experiences hold representation within the brain, arguing against oversimplified behaviour model interpretations.
Emerging Themes in Psychology
Psychology remains a dynamic field continually evolving through new themes and research methodologies.
Five Prominent Trends: While not exhaustive, they signify areas with a substantial influence on contemporary psychology:
Psychology of Women
Historical male-centric dominance in psychology has been counterbalanced by contributions from notable female figures like Anna Freud and Karen Horney.
1980s Shift: Social dynamics regarding women catalyzed a change in perspectives within the field, challenging stereotypes about leadership and male superiority.
Sandra Bem's Research: Exposed how sexist attitudes shape power dynamics and stereotypes, directly affecting women's self-perceptions.
As a result, women's opportunities in psychology have grown, with female candidates now exceeding male counterparts in graduate programs.
Research in the psychology of women addresses various critical issues, including health, violence, and unique experiences, such as pregnancy.
Examination of gender behaviour revealed differences in stress responses; males often exhibit a "fight or flight" response, while females typically demonstrate a "tend and befriend" reaction.
Comparing Cultures
Cross-Cultural Psychology: Investigates individual/group behaviours across diverse cultural contexts, illuminating societal influences on beliefs and values.
The research frequently contrasts participants from North America with individuals from non-Western nations (e.g., China, Japan).
Western nations with high immigration rates facilitate analysis between first and second-generation immigrants concerning their navigation of cultural influences.
Indigenous Perspectives
Approximately 1.67 million Indigenous Peoples, constituting about 5% of Canada’s populace, represent diverse groups such as First Nations, Métis, Inuit, and others.
Cultural Diversity: There is significant variation in languages and customs among Indigenous populations.
Colonial History: Shared experiences of colonization, land dispossession, violence, and cultural elimination profoundly impact Indigenous communities today, notably seen in the legacy of residential schools.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission (2007-2015): Generated mandates to address residential school impacts and promote Indigenous knowledge integration in educational contexts.
Enhancing mental health outcomes for Indigenous patients may come from utilizing traditional healing practices alongside Western methods, particularly important in areas like addiction treatment.
The Neuroimaging Explosion
fMRI Development: Functional magnetic resonance imaging revolutionized brain activity detection in the 1990s, enabling clear 3D image capture.
Initial Research Applications: Initially used to investigate basic behaviours tied to simple sensations like visual perception.
Cognitive Neuroscience: fMRI transformed understanding of cognitive behaviours (memory, emotions, decision-making), thereby birthing the cognitive neuroscience field blending cognitive psychology with biopsychology.
Social Neuroscience Development: Especially within social psychology, fMRI application has expanded to studying societal behaviours like racism and interpersonal dynamics, culminating in social neuroscience.
Broad Applications: Neuroimaging technologies (e.g., fMRI) now extend to numerous empirical studies, including personality traits and consumer behaviour.
Psychology in the Real World
Psychology research transitions to practical applications beyond laboratories into settings including educational institutions, workplaces, military operations, and legal contexts.
Child Interview Techniques: Ongoing research at Memorial University enhances legal interview practices for children.
Universities like Alberta, Victoria, Queens, and Simon Fraser engage in psychology intersection with law focusing on psychopathy and eyewitness testimonies.
In educational terms, psychologists contribute to anti-bullying strategies and related initiatives.
Industrial/Organizational psychologists advocate for fair working environments, while human factors psychologists facilitate user-friendly technology interactions; psychologists contribute toward promoting sustainable environmental behaviours and exploring influences on environmental attitudes, including human behaviours in digital contexts.
Module 1.2 Summary
Philosophical Roots: Determinism, empiricism, and materialism nurture the scientific study of human behaviour.
Origins in Psychology: Foundational psychologists initially trained in physics and physiology, exploiting psychophysics and element analysis paradigms.
Darwin’s Theoretical Influence: Darwin’s natural selection notion shaped functionalism, addressing behaviours strengthening survivability.
Psychology Specializations Include:
Cognitive Physiologist: Dedicated to optimal study habits and memory performance.
Social Psychologist: Investigates social influences on stereotype acceptance and expression.
Cross-Cultural Psychologist: Compares childrearing practices globally.
Evolutionary Psychologists: Focus on adaptive behaviours within fluctuating environments.
Humanistic Psychologist: Aims at helping individuals rectify their life issues to realize their potential.
Empiricism & Determinism: Core principles in psychology underline knowledge acquired through sensory experience against material causality dictating event occurrences, though they may be at odds with free-will notions.