Clinical Psychology Origins & Historical Events

Origins of Clinical Psychology

  • Clinical psychology emerged around the turn of the 20th century, gaining prominence decades later.
  • It shares historical roots with ancient Greek philosophers and Wilhelm Wundt's psychological laboratory.
  • Increased need for improved human life and mental health has boosted clinical psychology's popularity.

Pioneers in Humane Treatment

  • William Tuke (1732-1822):

    • Established the York Retreat, emphasizing kindness and dignity for the mentally ill.
    • Patients received good care, exercise, and social interaction.

  • Philippe Pinel (1745-1826):

    • Advocated for the removal of mentally ill individuals from dungeons in Paris.
    • Promoted compassion and hope over maltreatment, introducing humane treatment in institutions.
    • Emphasized case histories and illness classification for patient care.
    • Expressed empathy over cruelty, as seen in his quote: "To rule [the mentally ill] with a rod of iron…is a system of superintendence, more distinguished for its convenience than for its humanity or success."

  • Eli Todd (1762-1832):

    • Established a retreat in Hartford, Connecticut, based on Pinel's ideas.
    • Focused on humane treatment, emphasizing patients' strengths and involving them in treatment decisions.

  • Dorothea Dix (1802-1887):

    • Advocated for the improved treatment of the mentally ill after witnessing their mistreatment in jails.
    • Collected data and persuaded community leaders to provide humane care.

Significant Events Before World War II

  • 2500-500 B.C.: Supernatural, magic, herbs, and reason used for mental and physical illness.
  • 470-322 B.C.: Greeks use holistic approach.
  • 130-200 A.D.: Galen develops foundation of Western medicine.
  • 500-1450: Middle Ages: supernatural forces influence health.
  • 1490-1541: Paracelsus links celestial movements to behavior.
  • 1500-1700: Renaissance: biological factors seen as influencing health.
  • 1596-1650: René Descartes develops mind/body dualism.
  • 1745-1826: Pinel develops humane moral therapy.
  • 1802-1887: Dorothea Dix advocates for humane treatment in America.
  • 1848: New Jersey builds first state mental hospital.

After Psychology Founded (until WWII)

  • 1879: Wilhelm Wundt opens first psychology lab.
  • 1879: William James develops first American psychology lab at Harvard.
  • 1883: G. Stanley Hall develops second psychology lab at Johns Hopkins.
  • 1888: James McKean Cattell develops third American psychology lab.
  • 1890: James publishes Principles of Psychology; Cattell defines "mental test".
  • 1892: American Psychological Association (APA) founded.
  • 1896: Lightner Witmer establishes first psychology clinic.
  • 1900: Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams.
  • 1904: Alfred Binet starts developing an intelligence test.
  • 1905: Binet-Simon scale of intelligence is introduced; Carl Jung creates word association test.
  • 1907: Psychological Clinic, the first clinical journal, is published.
  • 1908: Clifford Beers begins mental hygiene movement.
  • 1909: Clinical psychology section formed at APA; Freud visits America.
  • 1909: William Healy develops child guidance clinic in Chicago.
  • 1916: Lewis Terman develops Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test.
  • 1917: Clinicians of APA form American Association of Clinical Psychologists (AACP); Robert Yerkes develops Army Alpha test.
  • 1919: AACP rejoins APA.
  • 1921: Cattell develops Psychological Corporation; Hermann Rorschach presents inkblot test.
  • 1924: Mary Cover Jones uses learning principles to treat children’s fears.
  • 1935: APA Committee defines clinical psychology.
  • 1936: Louttit publishes first clinical psychology textbook.
  • 1937: Clinicians leave APA again to form American Association of Applied Psychology (AAAP); Journal of Consulting Psychology begins.
  • 1939: The Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale is published.
  • 1945: AAAP rejoins APA.

Freud's Influence

  • Freud's psychic determinism, focus on early childhood, and unconscious processes greatly influenced psychology.
  • William James predicted that "The future of psychology belongs to your work."
  • G. Stanley Hall encouraged clinical practice and research and founded journals.
  • Carl Jung's word association research was a forerunner to projective testing.

Witmer to World War II

  • By 1914, 20 psychological clinics existed on university campuses.
  • Psychologists became "mental testers" in hospitals, reporting to medical superiors.
  • World War I accelerated the growth of clinical psychology through the development of group intelligence tests like the Army Alpha and Army Beta.
  • Robert S. Woodworth's Psychometric Inventory screened soldiers with emotional problems.

Psychology as Profession

  • Psychology has become an autonomous, self-regulating profession.
  • Standards and accreditation procedures exist for graduate education, internships, licensing laws, and ethical codes.
  • The doctorate is the standard for independent professional functioning.

New Models of Clinical Training

  • The scientist-professional model was established at Boulder in 1949.
  • The Vail Conference of 1973 approved the concept of "professional" clinician.
  • More clinicians are now trained in professional schools than in traditional university programs.

Serving Diverse Clientele

  • Clinicians deal with a range of problems, from severe disabilities to minor life issues.
  • Interventions range from drugs to individual, family, and community therapy.
  • Patients include children, students, adults, the aged, and diverse populations in various settings.

Conceptual Frameworks for Clinical Intervention

  • Interventions are done within frameworks such as biological psychiatry, psychoanalytic, behavioral, humanistic/existential, and social psychology.
  • There are many different psychotherapies, with little conclusive evidence favoring one over another.

Specialization

  • Clinicians will function in many modes, leading to a family of clinical psychologies.
  • New specialties include medical psychology, health psychology, child clinician, gerontological clinician, and community psychologist.
  • The core of clinical psychology should be incorporated into the training of all specialists.

Origins of Clinical Psychology

  • Clinical psychology is heir to the psychometric and dynamic traditions.
  • The psychometric tradition emphasizes measurement and individual differences.
  • The dynamic tradition focuses on motivation, adaptation, and personality change.
  • American psychology favored altering and improving human functioning.

Psychometric Tradition

  • Sir Francis Galton's studies laid the groundwork for differential psychology.
  • James McKeen Cattell coined the term "mental tests".

Binet-Simon Scale

  • Alfred Binet developed a scale to distinguish mentally defective children.
  • William Stern suggested evaluating "mental age" in terms of chronological age to achieve an "intelligence quotient" (IQ).
  • Lewis Terman revised the scale into the Stanford-Binet.
  • Arguments arose over the nature of intelligence, IQ constancy, racial/ethnic differences, and culture bias.

Lightner Witmer

  • Seen as the father of clinical psychology.
  • Studied children with school and learning problems using tests and lab procedures.
  • Coined the term "clinical psychology" and described the "clinical method in psychology".

Dynamic Tradition

  • Students of abnormal behavior developed ideas about motivation, psychopathology, and psychotherapy.
  • Charcot, Janet, and Freud investigated hypnosis, dissociation, and hysteria.