Language and Audience

COVERT AND OVERT PRESTIGE:

  • OVERT PRESTIGE:

    • Status gained from using what most people see as a high status language: correct pronunciation, standard grammar, etc.

    • See ‘overt’ prestige as the obvious, widely accepted ‘correct’ form of language.

  • COVERT PRESTIGE:

    • Status gained from specific social groups by using non-standard forms.

    • For example, certain social groups may think that dropping ‘t’s or using ‘in’ instead of ‘ing’ is more respectable.

    • Not everyone would see it as high status language but certain people will.

GILES – ACCOMMODATION THEORY:

  • Suggests individuals adapt their language depending on who they are talking to in an attempt to either:

    • Reduce the social difference between them.

    • Increase the social differences between them.

  • Features which may be adapted:

    • Lexis

    • Pronunciation

    • Pauses

    • Utterance lengths

    • Vocal intensities

    • Non-verbal behaviours

  • CONVERGENCE:

    • Accommodating your language so that it is more similar to the other speaker.

  • DIVERGENCE:

    • Accommodating your language so that it is less similar to the other speaker.

  • Giles found that speakers are more likely to converge towards a partner that they are attracted to.

    • Could be said that converging reflects a desire for social approval.

BERNSTEIN – DUAL CODE (1971):

  • RESTRICTED CODE:

    • Based on shared, taken-for-granted knowledge in the group of speakers.

    • Conveys lots of meaning in a few words; each word has a range of associations and shared meanings.

    • You have to be ‘one of us’ to understand it.

    • May be within a friendship group, family, work group.

      • E.g ‘You know’, ‘you know what I mean’ is a restricted code usage: there is an expectation that others will know what you’re getting at.

    • More likely to find:

      • Even spread discourse

      • Short, elliptical sentences

      • Overlapping discourse

      • Slang/colloquial terms

      • Inside jokes

  • ELABORATED CODE:

    • Used when there is a difference in knowledge or experience between speakers. One person doesn’t know as much.

    • Explains everything in detail.

    • It is necessary to do this so that everyone can understand.

    • More likely to find:

      • Imbalance of contributions (one person speaks more).

      • Long, descriptive sentences.

      • Precise vocabulary.

      • Specialist terms explained.

      • Clear language that is less likely to be misconstrued.

BERNSTEIN’S THEORY AND SOCIAL CLASS:

  • In his studies, Bernstein found:

    • Working class students had access to restricted code(s).

    • Middle class students had access to both restricted and elaborated codes due to greater geographical, social and cultural mobility.

    • In schools and colleges, the introduction of new knowledge which goes beyond shared meanings requires the use of elaborated codes.

    • Working class students can understand the elaborated code, but are not confident in using elaborated codes in their own speech, and so relapse into ‘grunts and argot (jargon or slang of a particular group or class)’ which is inaccessible to teachers, reducing communication.