Period 6: Immigration & The Gilded Age (6.2 - 6.13)

Lesson 33: Causes and Effects of Westward Expansion (1877-1898)

Economic Factors of Westward Expansion

Mechanization of Agriculture

• The introduction of machinery in farming increased productivity, allowing for larger areas to be cultivated with fewer laborers.

• Mechanization led to the rise of industrial farming, which required significant capital investment and favored larger landowners over small farmers.

• Case Study: The use of the reaper and the tractor transformed wheat production in the Great Plains, making it a major agricultural region.

• Economic impact: Increased supply of crops led to lower prices, affecting small farmers' profitability and leading to economic distress.

• The shift towards mechanization contributed to rural depopulation as fewer workers were needed on farms.

Industrial Farming and the Law of Supply & Demand

• Industrial farming practices created a surplus of agricultural products, which influenced market prices based on supply and demand principles.

• The Law of Supply & Demand dictated that as supply increased, prices fell, impacting farmers' incomes and leading to economic instability.

• Example: The overproduction of wheat in the late 19th century caused prices to plummet, leading to widespread farmer bankruptcies.

• The National Grange Movement emerged as a response, advocating for farmers' rights and better prices through collective bargaining.

The Role of Railroads in Economic Expansion

• The Pacific Railroads Acts facilitated the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, which connected the East and West coasts, promoting trade and migration.

• The completion of the railroad in 1869 at Promontory, Utah, marked a significant milestone in American infrastructure, enhancing economic growth.

• Railroads enabled faster transportation of goods and people, reducing costs and opening new markets for agricultural and industrial products.

• The Union Pacific and Central Pacific Railroad Companies played crucial roles in the construction and operation of the railroad, impacting regional economies.

Gold and Silver Rushes

• The discovery of gold in California (1848) and silver in Nevada (1859) spurred massive migrations westward, leading to the establishment of boomtowns.

• Economic opportunities attracted diverse populations, including immigrants, leading to cultural exchanges and conflicts.

• The rushes contributed to the rapid development of infrastructure, including railroads and telegraph lines, to support mining operations.

• However, the rushes also led to environmental degradation and displacement of Native American tribes.

Government Policies Supporting Expansion

• The Homestead Act of 1862 encouraged settlement by offering land to individuals willing to farm it for five years, promoting westward migration.

• The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to assimilate Native Americans by allotting them individual plots of land, undermining tribal sovereignty.

• The Interstate Commerce Commission was established to regulate railroad rates and practices, reflecting the growing importance of railroads in the economy.

Social and Cultural Causes and Effects of Westward Expansion

Social Dynamics Between Homesteaders and Cowboys

• Homesteaders (sodbusters) focused on farming and settling land, while cowboys were primarily involved in cattle ranching and herding.

• Conflicts arose over land use, water rights, and differing lifestyles, leading to tensions between the two groups.

• The romanticized image of the cowboy contrasted with the struggles of homesteaders, highlighting the diverse experiences of settlers.

• Example: The range wars in the late 19th century exemplified the conflicts between cattle ranchers and farmers over land and resources.

Impact of the Frontier's Closure

• The 1890 announcement that the 'frontier was settled' marked a significant shift in American identity and expansionist ideology.

• The closure of the frontier led to debates about American exceptionalism and the need for new frontiers, both geographically and ideologically.

• Historians like Frederick Jackson Turner argued that the frontier shaped American democracy and individualism, raising questions about its absence.

• The end of the frontier also prompted a focus on urbanization and industrialization as new avenues for growth.

Effects on Native American Cultures

• Westward expansion led to the forced removal and relocation of Native American tribes, disrupting their traditional ways of life.

• The establishment of reservations and the Indian Appropriations Acts aimed to control and assimilate Native populations, eroding their cultural identities.

• The Ghost Dance movement emerged as a spiritual response to oppression, symbolizing resistance against American expansion.

• The Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890 epitomized the violent suppression of Native American resistance and the tragic consequences of expansion.

The Role of Chinese Immigrants

• Chinese immigrants played a crucial role in the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, providing labor under harsh conditions.

• Despite their contributions, they faced discrimination and violence, exemplified by the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which restricted immigration.

• The treatment of Chinese workers highlighted the racial tensions and economic exploitation prevalent during this period.

• The legacy of Chinese laborers is reflected in the cultural contributions and communities established in the West.

The American Indian Wars and Their Consequences

Causes and Key Events of the Indian Wars

• The Sioux Wars (1876-1877) were driven by the discovery of gold in the Black Hills and the encroachment of miners on Native lands.

• The Battle of Little Bighorn (June 25, 1876) resulted in a significant victory for the Lakota Sioux and Cheyenne against Custer's forces.

• Custer's defeat was a pivotal moment, symbolizing Native resistance but also leading to increased military action against tribes.

• The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) marked the end of armed conflict between Native Americans and the U.S. government, resulting in significant loss of life.

The Ghost Dance and Its Significance

• The Ghost Dance was a spiritual movement among Native Americans, promoting hope for a return to traditional ways and resistance against U.S. policies.

• Wovoka's teachings emphasized unity and the revival of Native cultures, which alarmed U.S. officials and led to its prohibition.

• The movement culminated in the tragic events at Wounded Knee, where the U.S. military confronted Ghost Dancers, resulting in a massacre.

• The Ghost Dance symbolizes the broader struggle of Native Americans to maintain their identity in the face of colonization.

Legislative Actions and Their Impact

• The Dawes Act (1887) aimed to assimilate Native Americans by allotting individual plots of land, undermining tribal cohesion.

• The Indian Appropriations Acts established the reservation system, forcing Native peoples onto designated lands and limiting their autonomy.

• These policies resulted in the loss of millions of acres of tribal land and significant cultural disruption among Native communities.

• The legacy of these acts continues to affect Native American rights and land claims today.

Lesson 34: Continuity and Change in the New South (1877-1898)

Overview of the New South

Historical Context

• The term 'New South' refers to the South's transformation post-Civil War, particularly from 1877 to 1898.

• This period was marked by efforts to reintegrate Southern states into the Union and reshape their economies and societies.

• The end of Reconstruction in 1877 led to the rise of Jim Crow laws and systemic racism.

• Industrialization began to take root, with figures like Henry Grady advocating for economic diversification beyond agriculture.

Key Figures and Their Contributions

• Henry W. Grady: A journalist who promoted the New South vision, emphasizing industrial growth and reconciliation with the North.

• Ida B. Wells: A journalist and activist who exposed the horrors of lynching and fought for civil rights.

• Booker T. Washington: Advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance among African Americans through the Tuskegee Institute.

• W.E.B. Du Bois: Criticized Washington's approach, advocating for civil rights and higher education for the 'Talented Tenth' of the African American community.

Political, Economic, and Social Changes

Political Changes

• The end of Reconstruction led to the establishment of Jim Crow laws, enforcing racial segregation.

• The political landscape shifted as white Democrats regained control, disenfranchising black voters through literacy tests and poll taxes.

• The Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation laws, establishing the 'separate but equal' doctrine.

• Political activism among African Americans began to rise, with leaders like Wells and Washington advocating for rights.

Economic Changes

• The South transitioned from a primarily agrarian economy to one that included industrialization, particularly in textiles and manufacturing.

• Sharecropping emerged as a dominant labor system, often trapping African Americans in cycles of debt and poverty.

• Economic opportunities for African Americans were limited, leading to a reliance on low-wage labor and exploitation.

• The establishment of institutions like the Tuskegee Institute aimed to provide vocational training and improve economic prospects for blacks.

Continuities in the New South

Social Continuities

• Racial discrimination remained pervasive, with Jim Crow laws institutionalizing segregation and disenfranchisement.

• The cultural perception of African Americans as inferior persisted, reinforced by derogatory stereotypes and media portrayals.

• Despite the emergence of black leaders, systemic racism continued to limit their influence and opportunities.

• The legacy of slavery influenced social structures, with many African Americans remaining in agricultural labor under oppressive conditions.
  
  

Economic Continuities

• Sharecropping perpetuated a cycle of poverty, functioning as a new form of economic slavery for many African Americans.

• The South's economy remained heavily reliant on agriculture, particularly cotton, despite industrial growth.

• Wealth disparities between white landowners and black laborers continued to widen, maintaining economic inequalities.

• The lack of access to education and capital for African Americans hindered economic mobility and self-sufficiency.

Resistance and Activism

Methods of Resistance

• Ida B. Wells: Utilized journalism to expose lynching and advocate for civil rights, publishing works like Southern Horrors (1892).

• Booker T. Washington: Promoted vocational training and economic self-help as a means to uplift the African American community.

• W.E.B. Du Bois: Advocated for immediate civil rights and higher education, co-founding the NAACP in 1909 to fight for racial equality.

• Henry Turner: Encouraged African Americans to migrate to Africa as a response to oppression, promoting self-determination.

Impact of Jim Crow Laws

• Jim Crow laws enforced racial segregation in public spaces, schools, and transportation, severely limiting African American rights.

• The laws contributed to widespread disenfranchisement, with many African Americans losing the right to vote.

• The social and economic effects of these laws entrenched poverty and inequality within the African American community.

• The legacy of Jim Crow laws continued to affect civil rights movements well into the 20th century.

• Miscegenation – barring of mixed marriage

  • Ended in 1967 due to Loving v. Virginia (Supreme Court)

Lesson 35: Technological Innovations and Industrial Capitalism

Overview of Technological Innovations in the Gilded Age

The Impact of Industrialization

• The Second Industrial Revolution marked a significant transformation in American society, characterized by rapid industrial growth and urbanization.

• Key innovations included the steam engine, electricity, and the telegraph, which revolutionized communication and transportation.

• Industrialization led to the rise of factories, which centralized production and increased efficiency, but also resulted in harsh working conditions for laborers.

• The growth of industries such as steel, textiles, and railroads contributed to the United States becoming a global economic power.

• Urban areas expanded as people migrated for jobs, leading to the development of new social classes and economic disparities.

The Role of Railroads in Economic Development

• Railroads were pivotal in connecting the vast American landscape, facilitating trade and the movement of goods and people.

• The completion of the four transcontinental railroads was a monumental achievement, supported by government land grants and subsidies.

• Railroads stimulated the economy by creating jobs, promoting the growth of towns, and enabling the distribution of agricultural products.

• The phrase 'the Grand Daddy of all technological innovations' reflects the railroads' foundational role in the industrial economy.

• Maps from the period illustrate the extensive network of railroads and their impact on production and distribution.

Key Figures and Innovations

Henry Bessemer and the Steel Revolution

• Sir Henry Bessemer developed the Bessemer process in 1856, which allowed for the mass production of steel at a lower cost.

• This innovation marked the transition from the Age of Iron to the Age of Steel, fundamentally changing construction and manufacturing.

• Bessemer's contributions included over 110 patents, showcasing his diverse inventions beyond steel production.

• The Bessemer converter became a critical tool in steel manufacturing, leading to the construction of skyscrapers and railroads.

• Steel's dominance as a construction material facilitated the growth of urban infrastructure and industrial capabilities.
  
  

The Transatlantic Cable: A Turning Point

• The completion of the transatlantic cable in 1866 revolutionized global communication, connecting the United States and Europe.

• Cyrus Field, the project's promoter, exemplified American ingenuity and determination in overcoming engineering challenges.

• The cable allowed for instantaneous communication across the Atlantic, significantly impacting business and diplomacy.

• It is often regarded as the greatest engineering feat of the 19th century due to its complexity and the technology involved.

• The socioeconomic effects included enhanced international trade and the acceleration of globalization.

The Rise of Industrial Capitalism

Captains of Industry vs. Robber Barons

• Figures like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller are often debated as either Captains of Industry or Robber Barons, depending on their business practices and impacts on society.

• Captains of Industry are viewed as innovators who contributed to economic growth, while Robber Barons are seen as exploiters of labor and resources.

  • Robber Barons controlled legislature

• Evidence supporting the Captains of Industry perspective includes their philanthropic efforts and contributions to society, such as libraries and universities.

• Conversely, evidence for the Robber Baron perspective includes monopolistic practices and the suppression of labor rights.

• The debate reflects broader themes of capitalism, ethics, and social responsibility in business.
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Business Strategies: Vertical and Horizontal Integration

• Vertical integration involves controlling all aspects of production, from raw materials to distribution, exemplified by Carnegie Steel.

• Horizontal integration involves acquiring competitors to increase market share, as seen in Rockefeller's Standard Oil.

• Each strategy has its advantages; vertical integration can reduce costs and improve efficiency, while horizontal integration can eliminate competition.

• The choice between these strategies reflects the business environment and the goals of the industrialist.

• Analyzing the effectiveness of these strategies provides insight into the growth of corporations during the Gilded Age.

Government and Business Relations

The Sherman Antitrust Act

• The Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 aimed to prevent monopolistic practices and promote fair competition in the marketplace.

• Businesses often opposed the Act, arguing it restricted their ability to operate efficiently and compete globally.

• The Act marked a significant shift in government policy towards regulating business practices and protecting consumer interests.

• Analyzing charts from the period reveals the tensions between corporate interests and regulatory efforts.

• The Act laid the groundwork for future antitrust legislation and shaped the relationship between government and business.

The Changing Landscape of Labor

• The rise of industrial capitalism led to significant changes in labor conditions, with many workers facing long hours and low wages.

• The Pullman Railroad Strike of 1894 highlighted the struggles of laborers and the need for labor rights, leading to the establishment of Labor Day.

• Political cartoons from the era often depicted the struggles between labor and capital, illustrating public sentiment towards industrialists.

• The emergence of labor unions was a response to the harsh realities of industrial work, advocating for better conditions and rights.

• Understanding the labor movement's origins provides context for contemporary labor relations and rights.

Lesson 36: Labor Movements and Strikes in the Gilded Age

Key Terms/Concepts

• Gilded Age: A period in U.S. history from the 1870s to about 1900 characterized by rapid economic growth, industrialization, and a stark divide between the wealthy and the poor.

• Conspicuous Consumption: The act of purchasing goods not for their utility but for the status they confer, often associated with the wealthy. 

• Labor Unions: Organizations formed by workers to advocate for better working conditions, wages, and rights. 

Events

• Haymarket Square Riot (1886): A violent confrontation in Chicago between police and labor protesters advocating for workers' rights, which became a symbol of the labor movement and led to the formation of the American Federation of Labor. 

• Pullman Strike (1894): A nationwide railroad strike that escalated into a confrontation between strikers and federal troops, highlighting the tensions between labor and management.

• Railroad Strike (1877): Marked the first nationwide strike in U.S. history, highlighting labor unrest. 

Key People 

• Samuel Gompers: Founder of the American Federation of Labor (AFL), he advocated for workers' rights, shorter hours, and higher wages, promoting harmony among different unions. 

• Eugene Debs: Leader of the American Railway Union and a key figure in the labor movement, known for his role in the Pullman Strike and his advocacy for socialism. 

  • Founded socialist party and ran for President – advocated for single tax

Fundamental Theories 

• Self-Made Man: A concept that emphasizes individual effort and determination in achieving success, often exemplified by figures like Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller. 

Facts to Memorize 

• The Haymarket Affair occurred on May 4, 1886, in Chicago.

•  The Pullman Strike took place in 1894. 

• Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and served as its president until 1924. 

• Eugene Debs was a key figure in the American Railway Union and led the Pullman Strike.

Lesson 37: Cultural and Economic Factors in Migration Patterns

Understanding Migration and Immigration

Definitions and Distinctions

• Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, which can be temporary or permanent, while immigration specifically denotes the act of entering a new country with the intention of settling there.

• The post-Civil War period saw approximately 16 million immigrants arriving in America, driven by factors such as economic opportunity, political unrest, and the promise of a better life.

• Key reasons for this influx included the Industrial Revolution, which created jobs, and political persecution in home countries, particularly in Europe.

• Immigrants maintained cultural ties through community organizations, religious institutions, and cultural festivals, which helped preserve their heritage in a new land.

• Social Darwinism emerged as a belief system that applied the concept of 'survival of the fittest' to human societies, often justifying the exclusion of certain immigrant groups as 'less fit' for American society.

• The Exoduster Movement was significant as it marked the first major migration of African Americans post-Civil War, seeking better opportunities in Kansas.

Urbanization and Its Impact

• Urbanization in the late 19th century led to a dramatic increase in city populations, with many immigrants settling in urban areas for job opportunities.

• Maps from this period show a significant population growth in eastern cities like New York and Chicago, while western cities also began to develop as new economic centers.

• The Exoduster Movement contributed to westward expansion, as African Americans sought to establish new lives in Kansas, enhancing the demographic diversity of the region.

• The rise of streetcar suburbs allowed middle-class families to live outside city centers while commuting for work, reflecting changing urban dynamics.

• Tenement apartments became the primary housing for many immigrants, often overcrowded and poorly constructed, leading to public health issues.

• Ethnic neighborhoods or ghettos formed as immigrants sought community and cultural preservation, often resulting in vibrant cultural enclaves.

Immigration Processing and Experiences

Ellis Island vs. Angel Island

• Ellis Island operated from 1892 to 1954, processing over 12 million immigrants, while Angel Island served as the West Coast counterpart from 1910 to 1940, processing about 1 million immigrants.

• The experience of immigrants at Ellis Island was often more welcoming compared to Angel Island, where many Asian immigrants faced harsher scrutiny and longer detentions.

• First-class passengers on ships enjoyed better accommodations and faster processing times, while second-class and steerage passengers faced overcrowding and lengthy inspections upon arrival.

• The portrayal of immigration in popular culture, such as in The Godfather II, highlights the emotional and challenging experiences faced by newcomers.

• Anti-Asian laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, were enacted to limit immigration from Asia, reflecting the racial prejudices of the time.

• The treatment of immigrants varied significantly based on race and nationality, with European immigrants often receiving more favorable treatment than their Asian counterparts.

Responses to Immigration

Nativism and Social Responses

• Nativism emerged as a reaction against immigration, promoting the interests of native-born Americans and often leading to discrimination against immigrants.

• Henry Cabot Lodge was a prominent figure in the Gilded Age who advocated for restrictive immigration policies, reflecting the nativist sentiments of the time.

• The debate over whether immigrants should assimilate into American culture or maintain their distinct identities continues to be relevant today.

• The American Protective Association was formed in the late 19th century, similar to the Know Nothings of the 1840s, both groups opposing immigration but differing in their specific targets and methods.

• Labor unions often opposed immigration, fearing that an influx of workers would drive down wages and working conditions for native-born laborers.

• Social Darwinism justified exclusionary practices by suggesting that certain races or ethnicities were inherently superior, influencing public policy and societal attitudes.

Cultural Perspectives and Historical Context

Cultural Pluralism vs. Melting Pot

• The concept of cultural pluralism emphasizes the coexistence of diverse cultures within society, contrasting with the melting pot theory that advocates for assimilation into a single dominant culture.

• Cultural pluralism is likened to a mosaic or salad bowl, where individual identities are preserved while contributing to a cohesive society.

• Historical expectations for immigrants included abandoning their native languages and customs in favor of American ideals, often enforced through educational systems.

• Oscar Handlin's work, The Uprooted, highlighted the alienation felt by first-generation immigrants, who struggled to find belonging in either their native or new cultures.

• Richard C. Wade's observations on African American migration to northern cities reveal the persistent issues of racism and the formation of ghettos, complicating the assimilation narrative.

• The ongoing debate about the melting pot versus salad bowl theories reflects contemporary discussions about immigration and cultural identity.

Immigration and Social Darwinism

Henry Cabot Lodge and Immigration Restrictions

• Henry Cabot Lodge argued that unskilled foreign labor threatened the standard of living for American workers, fearing that uneducated immigrants would lead to social conflict and national decline.

• His views were influenced by Social Darwinism, which posited that certain races were superior to others, justifying his racist beliefs.

• Lodge advocated for immigration restrictions, which reflected a broader nativist sentiment in America during the early 20th century.

• His opposition to Woodrow Wilson's Treaty of Versailles was significant, as it prevented the U.S. from joining the League of Nations, impacting international relations.

• Lodge's actions and beliefs contributed to the shaping of modern immigration policies and attitudes towards immigrants in the U.S.

• He was a prominent figure from Beverly, Massachusetts, and his legacy continues to influence discussions on immigration today.

The American Protective Association (APA)

• Founded in 1887 by Henry F. Bowers, the APA was an anti-Catholic organization that sought to restrict Catholic immigration.

• The APA aimed to make English proficiency a requirement for American citizenship, reflecting nativist attitudes of the time.

• It sought to remove Catholic teachers from public schools and prevent Catholics from holding public office, showcasing the era's religious intolerance.

• The APA's goals mirrored those of earlier groups like the Know Nothings, indicating a persistent anti-immigrant sentiment in American history.

• The organization played a role in shaping public policy and attitudes towards immigrants, particularly Catholics, during the late 19th century.

• Its influence waned over time, but the legacy of anti-Catholic sentiment persisted in various forms throughout American history.

Racist Anti-Immigrant Cartoons

• Cartoons from the turn of the 20th century depicted immigrants in derogatory ways, such as portraying the Irish as apes and Italians as filth, reflecting societal prejudices.

• These caricatures served to dehumanize immigrants, supporting Social Darwinist theories that justified racial hierarchies.

• The “Great Fear” of this period was rooted in the belief that immigrants would undermine American values and social order.

• Such cartoons were a form of propaganda that influenced public opinion and policy regarding immigration.

• They illustrate the intersection of race, class, and immigration in American society, highlighting the fears and anxieties of the time.

• The legacy of these portrayals continues to resonate in contemporary discussions about immigration and race in America.

Political Machines and Corruption

Tammany Hall and Machine Politics

• Tammany Hall, founded in 1786, was a powerful political machine in New York City that operated under a patronage system.

• The organization was known for its support of immigrants and the poor, which helped it maintain power for decades.

• Key figures included William M. Tweed, Richard Croker, and Charles Murphy, who exemplified the corrupt practices of political machines.

• Tammany Hall's influence began to decline in the mid-20th century, particularly under the leadership of reform-minded mayors like Fiorello LaGuardia.

• The machine's legacy is a complex one, as it provided essential services to immigrants while also engaging in widespread corruption.

• The practices of graft and patronage in Tammany Hall reflect broader themes of political corruption in American history.

Thomas Nast: The Father of the American Cartoon

• Thomas Nast was a prominent caricaturist and political cartoonist known for his critiques of Tammany Hall and Boss Tweed.

• He popularized symbols such as the Republican elephant and modern depictions of Santa Claus, influencing American political culture.

• Nast's cartoons often addressed social issues, including immigration and corruption, making him a significant figure in American journalism.

• His work in Harper's Weekly helped shape public opinion against corrupt politicians and contributed to reform movements.

• One of his most famous cartoons, 'Uncle Sam's Thanksgiving Dinner,' depicted a diverse America, reflecting changing attitudes towards immigration.

• Nast's influence extended beyond his lifetime, as his work continues to be referenced in discussions about political cartoons and social commentary.

Social Reform and the Settlement House Movement

Jane Addams and Hull House

• Jane Addams was a pioneering social reformer and co-founder of Hull House, a settlement house in Chicago established in 1889.

• Hull House aimed to provide community services to alleviate urban poverty and improve living conditions for immigrants.

• Addams rejected traditional gender roles, dedicating her life to social reform and advocating for the rights of the poor.

• The settlement house movement expanded significantly, with Hull House serving as a model for similar institutions across the country.

• Addams' work laid the foundation for modern social work and community organizing, influencing future generations of activists.

• Today, settlement houses continue to play a vital role in providing services to underserved communities, reflecting the enduring legacy of Addams' vision.

Lesson 38: The Rise of the Middle Class and Mass Culture in the Gilded Age

The Rise of the Middle Class

Economic Opportunities

• The Gilded Age saw a significant increase in economic opportunities due to industrialization, which led to the growth of factories and urban centers.

• The expansion of railroads facilitated trade and commerce, allowing for the rise of new businesses and job creation.

• The emergence of large corporations transformed the job market, moving from small family-owned businesses to large-scale enterprises.

• Increased availability of consumer goods and services contributed to the growth of a consumer-oriented economy.

• The rise of the middle class was characterized by increased disposable income, allowing for leisure activities and improved living standards.

New Social Classes

• The Gilded Age introduced distinct social classes, including the upper class (wealthy industrialists), middle class (professionals and clerks), and working class (laborers).

• The middle class emerged as a significant social force, advocating for education, social reforms, and cultural activities.

• The concept of 'white collar' jobs became prevalent, with roles such as clerks, salespeople, and managers becoming common.

• The middle class played a crucial role in shaping American culture and values during this period, emphasizing education and self-improvement.

Leisure Activities of the Middle Class

• The middle class had extra income for leisure due to stable jobs and the rise of consumer culture, leading to increased spending on entertainment.

• Popular leisure activities included attending theaters, visiting amusement parks, and participating in sports.

• The establishment of public parks and libraries provided spaces for recreation and community engagement.

• The rise of mass media, including newspapers and magazines, contributed to the spread of popular culture and entertainment.

• Social clubs and organizations became popular, fostering community ties and social networking.

Mass Culture and Education

Development of Mass Culture

• Mass culture emerged post-industrial revolution, characterized by standardized cultural products produced for a large audience.

• The rise of mass media, including newspapers, radio, and later television, played a significant role in shaping public opinion and cultural norms.

• Mass culture often reflected the values and interests of the middle class, promoting consumerism and leisure activities.

• The concept of 'culture industry' describes how entertainment products are created by large conglomerates for mass consumption.

Compulsory Education

• Massachusetts passed the first compulsory education law in 1852, mandating primary education for children.

• The law aimed to provide universal access to education, leading to increased literacy rates and school enrollment.

• Public schools became more common in urban areas, with a focus on basic subjects like grammar and arithmetic.

• Horace Mann, known as the 'father of American education,' advocated for a unified school system and a varied curriculum.

• The establishment of kindergartens by educators like Elizabeth Peabody emphasized the importance of early childhood education.

Higher Education and Social Change

Morrill Acts and Higher Education

• The Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 provided federal land grants to establish colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts.

• These acts expanded access to higher education, particularly for the middle class and people of color, fostering a more educated workforce.

• Notable universities founded due to the Morrill Acts include Cornell, MIT, and the University of California.

• The establishment of women's colleges, such as Smith and Bryn Mawr, marked a significant advancement in women's education during this period.

• African American institutions like Howard and Morehouse were founded, providing educational opportunities for black students.

Contributions of the Gospel of Wealth

• The Gospel of Wealth, articulated by Andrew Carnegie, emphasized the responsibility of the wealthy to contribute to society.

• Carnegie advocated for philanthropy, funding libraries, schools, and cultural institutions to benefit the public.

• Phoebe Apperson Hearst also contributed significantly to education and social causes, supporting women's education and public libraries.

• The concept of 'giving back' became a hallmark of the wealthy class, influencing future generations of philanthropists.

• This movement laid the groundwork for modern charitable foundations and social responsibility among the affluent.

Urbanization and Suburban Development

Urbanization Trends

• The late 19th century saw rapid urbanization as people flocked to cities for jobs in factories and services.

• Urban centers faced challenges such as overcrowding, pollution, and inadequate sanitation, leading to public health issues.

• The development of skyscrapers transformed city skylines, reflecting economic growth and architectural innovation.

• Middle-class families sought refuge from urban problems by moving to suburbs, facilitated by improved mass transit.

The Suburban Movement

• The first suburbs developed along train and trolley lines, allowing residents to commute to urban jobs.

• Suburbs offered a quieter, cleaner environment, appealing to middle-class families seeking a better quality of life.

• Llewellyn Park, NJ, designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, exemplified the early suburban ideal of domesticity and family life.

• The post-World War II era saw the rise of modern suburbs, such as Levittown, catering to the growing middle class.

Lesson 39: Reforms and Education in the Gilded Age 

Industrial Capitalism and Its Impact on Workers

Effects of Industrial and Laissez-Faire Capitalism

• Industrial capitalism led to significant economic growth but also resulted in harsh working conditions for laborers, including long hours, low wages, and unsafe environments.

• The laissez-faire approach meant minimal government intervention, allowing businesses to prioritize profit over worker welfare, leading to widespread exploitation.

• Workers faced job insecurity and were often subjected to layoffs during economic downturns, contributing to a cycle of poverty.

• Labor unions began to form in response to these conditions, advocating for better wages, hours, and working conditions, though they faced strong opposition from employers and the government.

• The rise of child labor was a direct consequence of industrial capitalism, with many children working in factories under dangerous conditions to support their families.

• Strikes and labor movements became more common as workers sought to challenge the status quo, leading to significant events like the Haymarket Affair (1886) and the Pullman Strike (1894).

The Rise of Socialism

• Socialism gained traction during the Gilded Age as a response to the inequalities created by capitalism, appealing to workers who felt marginalized.

• The idea of collective ownership and the redistribution of wealth resonated with those suffering from economic hardship and exploitation.

• Prominent figures like Eugene V. Debs advocated for socialism, arguing that it offered a solution to the problems faced by the working class.

• The appeal of socialism was heightened by the visibility of wealth disparity, with a small elite amassing fortunes while many lived in poverty.

• The establishment of socialist organizations and publications helped spread socialist ideas, fostering a sense of solidarity among workers.

• Events such as the 1896 election, where the Populist Party sought to unite workers and farmers, illustrated the growing discontent with capitalism.

The Social Gospel Movement

Overview of the Social Gospel

• The Social Gospel was a movement within Protestantism that sought to apply Christian ethics to social issues, emphasizing the moral obligation to address societal problems.

• Key issues addressed included economic inequality, poverty, and labor rights, reflecting a growing concern for social justice among religious leaders.

• Prominent figures like Walter Rauschenbusch argued that Christianity should focus on improving society rather than solely on individual salvation.

• The movement gained momentum in urban areas, where industrialization had exacerbated social issues, leading to a call for reform.

• The Social Gospel laid the groundwork for later social movements, including civil rights and labor rights, by advocating for systemic change.

• It emphasized community service and charity as essential components of faith, encouraging churches to engage with their local communities.

Key Figures in the Social Gospel Movement

• Walter Rauschenbusch: A leading theologian of the Social Gospel, he emphasized the need for social reform and the application of Christian principles to societal issues.

• Cardinal James Gibbons: Advocated for labor rights and social justice, promoting the idea that the church should support the working class.

• Dwight Moody: Focused on evangelism but also recognized the importance of addressing social issues, contributing to the broader Social Gospel movement.

• Henry George: Proposed the single tax on land to address economic inequality, arguing that land value should benefit the community rather than individual landowners.

• Edward Bellamy: Author of
  a utopian novel that envisioned a future society based on equality and cooperation, influencing socialist thought.

• Eugene V. Debs: A labor leader and socialist who advocated for workers' rights and the establishment of a more equitable society.

Education Reforms During the Gilded Age

Compulsory Education Laws

• Massachusetts passed the first compulsory education law in 1852, mandating primary education for children, which set a precedent for other states.

• The gradual implementation of compulsory education laws across the country aimed to provide universal access to education, though it faced resistance from some parents.

• New York followed suit with its first compulsory education law in 1874, reflecting a growing recognition of the importance of education for all children.

• The movement towards public education was uneven, with urban areas often having more resources and schools than rural regions.

• Horace Mann, known as the 'father of American education,' championed the establishment of public school systems and a varied curriculum.

• The concept of 'The Common School Period' marked a shift from private to public education, making schooling accessible to the masses.

Higher Education Developments

• The Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890 provided federal land grants to states for the establishment of colleges focused on agriculture and mechanical arts, expanding access to higher education.

• These acts led to the founding of numerous public universities, including Cornell and MIT, which became centers for research and innovation.

• The Second Morrill Act specifically aimed to increase educational opportunities for people of color, addressing historical inequalities in access to education.

• By 1900, a significant percentage of colleges began admitting women, reflecting changing societal attitudes towards women's education.

• African American institutions such as Fisk and Howard University were established during this period, providing higher education opportunities for Black students.

• Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, was the first American institution to specialize in graduate studies, setting a new standard for higher education.

Lesson 40: Politics During the Gilded Age 

Historical Context

• 20th President James Garfield, then succeeded by VP Chester Arthur 

  • Key turning point in civil service reform

  • Garfield’s death highlighted the dangers of patronage and the need for a more professional and impartial government workforce.

  • Pendleton Act in 1883 – required that certain government jobs be awarded based on merit rather than political connections.

• Laissez–faire 

  • Minimal gov’t intervention in the economy

  • Business tycoons amassed great wealth and they often used their financial power to influence politics. 

  • Little oversight, which enabled unethical practices like monopolies and exploitation of workers to thrive.

Political Parties of the Gilded Age

Civil service jobs were sought after because of steady wages paid by the government

The Greenback Party

• Third-party movement focused on the idea of printing more paper money (greenbacks) to increase the money supply and relieve debtors. 

• They wanted to make it easier for the working class and farmers to thrive by encouraging inflation.

The Populist Party

• Focused on improving conditions for farmers and working-class Americans. 

• The Omaha Platform – called for the free coinage of silver to inflate the currency, a progressive income tax, government ownership of railroads, and other reforms aimed at giving more power to common people. 

  • Wanted to challenge the dominance of big businesses and banks.

  • Helped bring issues like the free coinage of silver and government regulation of railroads into mainstream political debates. 

  • Their platform also influenced the Democratic Party, which later adopted some of their ideas, like the push for silver-backed currency.

Gold Standard & Silver

• Republics supported gold, democrats supported silver coinage 

• Not enough of it

• The price of gold and silver fluctuate drastically (will lead to deflation and inflation)

Key Terms

• Patronage: undeservedly giving government jobs

  • Provide jobs in exchange for votes, kickbacks, and political party service

• Spoils System: system in which winning candidate received the spoils of political victory 

  • Led to corruption in politics

  • Winners used system for political gain

  • Administration change = replacing thousands of jobs

• Graft: the use of a politicians authority for political gain 

• Tammany Hall: political machine founded in 1786 

• Political machine: a group in which an authoritative leader (aka a boss) commands the support of a corps of supporters and businesses (usually campaign workers), who receive patronage as a reward for their efforts.

Tammany Hall

• AKA the Society of St. Tammany, the Sons of St. Tammany, or the Columbian Order

• New York City political organization founded in 1786 and incorporated on May 12, 1789, until the 1960s.

• Tammany members saw themselves as the bastion of Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican principles.

  • Bastion – an institution, place, or person strongly defending or upholding particular principles, attitudes, or activities.

• Was a political machine

• Most famous Tammany Bosses

  • William M. Tweed (1823-’78)

  • Richard Croker (1843-1922)

  • Charles Murphy (1858-1924)

• Tammany helped NYC’s poor and recently arrived immigrants resulting in its longevity.

• In 1966, Tammany control was put to an by Fiorello LaGuardia (Mayor of NYC, 1934-’45) with the help of FDR & John V. Lindsay (Mayor of NYC, 1965-’73).

Thomas Nast (1840–1902)

• He was a German-born American caricaturist and editorial cartoonist often considered to be the "Father of the American Cartoon

• He was a critic of Democratic Representative "Boss" Tweed and the Tammany Hall Democratic party-political machine.

• He created a modern version of Santa Claus (based on the traditional German figures of Sankt Nikolaus and Weihnachtsmann) He also created the political symbol of the elephant for the Republican Party (GOP).

• Contrary to popular belief, Nast did not create Uncle Sam (the male personification of the United States Federal Government), Columbia (the female personification of American values), or the Democratic donkey.

• He did, however, popularize those symbols through his artwork.

• Nast was associated with the magazine Harper's Weekly from 1859 to 1860 and from 1862 until 1886.

• Nast's influence was so widespread that Theodore Roosevelt once said, "Thomas Nast was our best teacher."