In-Depth Study Notes on Urban Morphology

Urban Morphology

Study of the form, structure, and organization of urban spaces, a field that examines how cities evolve, the complexities involved in their design, and the socio-economic factors that influence urban development.

Definitions

• City: A large and significant urban area, often functioning as a political and economic hub, facilitating governance and commerce.

• Town: A medium-sized urban area, larger than a village but smaller than a city, typically characterized by a sense of community and local governance.

• Suburbs: Residential areas located on the outskirts of a city, often comprising a mix of residential, commercial, and recreational spaces, reflecting urban sprawl and providing a distinct lifestyle choice for families.

Urban Hierarchies

Settlement Hierarchy

• Hamlet: A small settlement with a few dozen people, often lacking basic services.

• Village: A community with approximately 100 people, usually providing some essential services and connections to larger urban centers.

• Town: An urban area with a population of a few thousand, possessing a greater range of services and a stronger economic base.

• City: A significant urban area with tens of thousands to millions of residents, providing diverse job opportunities and amenities.

• Metropolitan Area: Encompasses a large city and its surrounding areas, with populations ranging from 50,000 to millions, characterized by a high degree of social and economic interaction.

• Megalopolis/Conurbation: A significant urban expanse formed by the merging of several linked metropolitan areas (e.g., the BOSNYWASH corridor, which stretches from Boston to Washington, D.C.).

• Megacity: An urban area with over 10 million people; there are currently 35 worldwide, including cities like Tokyo, India, and São Paulo, with continued growth expected due to urbanization trends.

Population Classifications

• Population Ranges:

  • 1,000,001 +: Large metropolitan regions with significant infrastructure and cultural offerings.

  • 100,001 - 1,000,000: Mid-sized cities with various economic activities and amenities.

  • 2001 - 100,000: Towns and smaller cities that exhibit growth and urban expansion.

  • 101 - 2000: Smaller towns with emerging characteristics of urban living.

  • 11 - 100: Villages that maintain a rural character while growing closer to urban areas.

  • 1 - 10: Hamlets or isolated dwellings with minimal public services.

Settlement Patterns

• Dispersed Settlements: Characterized by scattered houses and communities across a large area, often in rural settings, leading to varied land use.

• Linear Settlements: Residential areas lined along transport routes such as roads, railways, and rivers, facilitating movement and trade.

• Nucleated Settlements: Housing clustered around a central hub, usually at major road intersections, promoting social interaction and economic activities within a compact area.

City Functions

• Economic Hubs: Cities serve as epicenters of significant economic activities, with basic industries (e.g., manufacturing in cities like Pittsburgh) and non-basic industries (e.g., cultural and retail sectors).

• World Cities: Cities are ranked based on amenities, economic influence, and cultural significance, categorized into:

  • Alpha: Cities such as New York, London, and Tokyo, which are global leaders in finance, culture, and politics.

  • Beta: Major global cities like Chicago, Paris, and Berlin that contribute significantly to the global economy.

  • Gamma: Cities like Jakarta and Rome that are influential at regional levels.

City Types

• Emerging Cities: Rapid growth in population and influence due to urbanization and economic changes, often exemplified by cities like Bangkok and Dubai.

• Gateway Cities: Cities like New York City and St. Louis, which act as significant transit points between regions and are crucial for trade and movement.

• Entrepot Cities: Key trading hubs (e.g., Shanghai and NYC) that facilitate international trade and commerce, typically with well-developed port infrastructures.

Functional Zonation

• Functional Zonation: This concept divides city space into zones based on function (e.g., commercial, residential), ensuring that urban environments are optimized for various uses, from housing to business.

• Zoning Laws: Regulations governing land use and development processes in different parts of a city, aiming to minimize conflicts between industrial and residential areas and to promote orderly growth.

Comparisons: USA vs. Europe

• USA: Local governments handle zoning regulations; segregated zones are common and often favor single-family homes, reflecting a car-dependent lifestyle. Suburbs typically feature wealthier populations than inner cities and are characterized by extensive road networks.

• Europe: National governments play a critical role in urban planning; mixed-use developments are prevalent, reflecting a more integrated approach to urban living. Suburbs often have lower wealth levels compared to city centers and feature robust public transportation systems.

Evolution of American Cities

Historical Phases

• Wagon-Sail (1790s-1830s): Development of early urban centers typified by port cities like Boston.

• Iron-Horse (1830-1870): Cities expanded rapidly with the growth of railroads in places like Chicago.

• Steel-Rail (1870-1920): Industrial cities emerged, leading to significant urban transformations.

• Auto-Air (1950-1980): Expansion of suburbs promoted automobile dependency, reshaping city dynamics.

• Computer-Internet (1990s - present): New forms of urbanization and connectivity emerge with the rise of technology and the internet, influencing urban living and working patterns.

Central Place Theory

Developed by Walter Christaller to explain the size and distribution of settlements based on economic geography.

Key Assumptions

The model assumes a flat surface with uniform population density and purchasing power across the area.

Key terms:

• Range: The maximum distance people are willing to travel for particular goods and services, varying based on product types.

• Threshold: The minimum number of customers required to sustain a business, influencing its viability.

• Hinterland: The market area surrounding a settlement that affects its economic reach.

Urban Models

• The Concentric Zone Model, developed by sociologist Ernest W. Burgess in the 1920s, outlines an urban structure organized in a series of concentric circles around a Central Business District (CBD). This model suggests that urban land use evolves outwards from the center, with each zone representing different socio-economic groups and land uses:

  

  1. Central Business District (CBD): This is the heart of the city, characterized by high land values and intensively developed buildings—mainly commercial and business activities. It serves as the main hub for economic transactions and employment.

  2. Zone of Transition: Surrounding the CBD, this area is marked by mixed-use development and often deteriorating housing, which serves as a buffer zone between the CBD and residential zones. It is typically inhabited by lower-income residents and may include factories and warehouses, commonly experiencing instability and change.

  3. Zone of Working-Class Homes: This zone consists mainly of older, modest single-family homes and multiple-family units. Residents often belong to the working class, commuting to the CBD or adjacent zones for jobs.

  4. Zone of Better Residences: Characterized by newer and larger homes, this area typically includes middle-class families. The houses are designed for those who have more income than those in the working-class zone.

  5. Commuter Zone: The outermost zone represents suburban areas where people live and commute to the city for work. These areas usually consist of affluent families who prefer distance from the urban core and seek a residential environment with space and greenery.
     The Concentric Zone Model illustrates social stratification in urban areas and highlights how physical space mirrors social structures, emphasizing the socio-economic disparities that can exist in urban environments.

• Sector Model (Hoyt):

  

  • Urban areas evolve in wedge-shaped sectors extending outward from the Central Business District (CBD).

  • Each sector is influenced by major transportation routes (highways, railways, waterways).

  • Facilitates movement of goods and people, shaping patterns of land use.

  • Economic activities and socioeconomic status influence sector distribution.

  • Zones are dedicated to residential, commercial, and industrial activities.

  • Affluent residences are typically located further from nuisances such as factories or lower-income areas.

• Multiple Nuclei Model:

  

  • Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman.

  • Argues against a singular CBD as the sole focus of urban growth.

  • Cities have multiple centers of activity, or nodes, each with specific roles (e.g., industrial parks, shopping centers, residential areas).

  • Nuclei evolve through various influences (economic, cultural, historical).

  • Each center impacts the social and economic dynamics of surrounding neighborhoods.

  • Leads to diverse urban development patterns accommodating different community needs and preferences.

• Urban Realms Model:

  

  • Introduced by William G. Bowen.

  • Emphasizes functional regions of a city.

  • Highlights the rise of edge cities—urbanized areas on the outskirts of traditional cities.

  • Characterized by a mix of residential, commercial, and entertainment spaces.

  • Areas are connected to metropolitan centers via transportation networks.

  • Promotes a decentralized urban structure where city boundaries become less distinct.

  • Creates greater interdependence between suburban and urban areas.

• Galactic Peripheral Model:

  

  • Coined by Richard E. Meyer.

  • Illustrates a decentralized layout of cities with multiple focal points.

  • Urban areas are influenced by various nodes for commercial, residential, and recreational activities.

  • Reflects post-industrial urban development dynamics.

  • Driven by technological advancements and changing lifestyles.

  • Contributes to increased suburbanization and a more complex urban hierarchy and landscape.

Global Urban Patterns

• Distinctions: Different types of cities exhibit unique structures and socio-economic conditions influenced by their geographic and cultural contexts.

• Latin America: The Griffin-Ford Model featuring dual CBDs, reflecting socio-economic disparities.

  

• Slums in Developing Cities: Barrios, Favelas, Shanty Towns are typically characterized by inadequate housing, lack of infrastructure, and limited access to basic services, which further exacerbates social inequality.

  

• African City: Designed with township layouts that incorporate mixed settlements, showcasing diversity in land use.

  

• Islamic Cities: Centrally organized with a mosque and bazaar layout, reflecting cultural and religious significance.

  

• Southeast Asian Cities: Showcase a variety of land use sectors, heavily influenced by rapid urbanization and development trends.

  

Social Issues in Urban Settings

• Segregation: Urban environments often present divisions along racial and economic lines influenced historically by redlining practices and white flight, exacerbating inequalities and affecting neighborhood dynamics.

• Gentrification: The trend where wealthier individuals move into lower-income neighborhoods, leading to the displacement of long-time residents and significant shifts in community identity and infrastructure.

• Redlining: A discriminatory practice initiated in the 1930s wherein banks and insurers marked maps in red to indicate high-risk neighborhoods, predominantly inhabited by people of color, leading to the withdrawal of investment and inhibiting residents' access to mortgages, loans, and insurance. This practice reinforced systemic racial segregation, limiting economic opportunities and perpetuating inequalities in urban areas, with long-lasting effects on community development and access to resources.

• Racial Steering: A practice where real estate agents guide prospective homeowners towards or away from certain neighborhoods based on their race or ethnicity. This contributes to ongoing segregation and reinforces discriminatory housing patterns, further entrenching existing inequalities within urban environments.

• Block busting: A controversial real estate practice from the mid-20th century, where agents would encourage racially integrated neighborhoods to panic sell their homes by convincing them that racial minorities moving in would decrease property values, ultimately leading to further segregation and displacement.

New Trends in Urban Design

• New Urbanism: A movement promoting walkable, aesthetically pleasing, and sustainable communities with mixed-use developments to foster local economies and reduce reliance on automobiles.

• Challenges of Urban Decline: Cities face decreased tax bases impacting city services, a trend worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic, necessitating innovative approaches to urban renewal and community engagement.

Socioeconomic Factors

• Racial Steering and Blockbusting: Real estate practices that reinforce segregation and contribute to instability in urban housing markets, affecting community demographics and access to resources.