The First Modern Campaign: Kennedy, Nixon, and the Election of 1960 - The Great Debates

The First Modern Campaign: Kennedy, Nixon, and the Election of 1960
Overview of the 1960 Debates

  • Pivotal Event: The four televised debates, especially the first, were central to the 1960 campaign and a "revolution in American politics" (Theodore White).

  • Mass Audience: The first debate drew 7070 million viewers, nearly two-thirds of adults, a record for a political event.

  • Outcome: The debates increased interest, boosted voter turnout, and were crucial to Kennedy's victory, helping him win independent voters by over 2:12:1.

Candidates' Perceptions and Motivations

  • Kennedy's Challenge: Seen as too young and inexperienced; debates offered a chance to prove his presidential capability.

  • Nixon's Confidence: Experienced Vice President, believed he was a "master of television" from his "Checkers Speech." He viewed Kennedy as naive and thought he could expose his inexperience.

  • Nixon's Dilemma: Despite Eisenhower's advice against it, Nixon debated to avoid charges of fear, recognizing the "built-in advantage" of the attacker.

The Rise of Television in Politics

  • Exponential Growth: TV ownership surged from 11%11 \% in 19501950 to 88%88 \% by 19601960.

  • Transformative Impact: This made visual elements (image, appearance) as crucial as issues, making the 1960 campaign the "first modern campaign."

Debate Mechanics and Preparation

  • Equal Time Rule: Congress suspended the "equal time rule" for 19601960, allowing only major candidates.

  • Format: Negotiated for four debates with a question format, banning notes, and specific time limits for statements and responses.

  • Preparation Styles:

    • Kennedy: Meticulously prepared with a "brain trust," studying intensively and adhering to a strict schedule.

    • Nixon: Took a casual approach, working alone, arriving late, and dedicating only 55 hours to preparation.

Pre-Debate Atmosphere and Image vs. Substance (First Debate)

  • Image Focus: Kennedy, tanned and well-dressed, drew immediate photographer attention. Nixon's decline of professional makeup resulted in a "washed out" appearance.

The First Debate: Opening Statements & Initial Exchanges

  • Kennedy's Opening: Framed domestic issues as vital to the global struggle, subtly attacking the administration and highlighting domestic problems.

  • Nixon's Opening: Started by agreeing with Kennedy, asking "Where then do we disagree?" He defended the Eisenhower administration's economic record and claimed his policies would be cheaper. This "me-too" approach alienated some Republicans.

The First Debate: Question and Answer Period

  • Key Exchanges: Kennedy aligned with the Democratic legacy; Nixon's "no comment" conceded a point. Clash over program costs, with Kennedy arguing his plans could be funded with a robust economy.

Styles and The Primacy of Image in the First Debate

  • Nixon's Style: Used a "college debating technique," addressing newsmen, which alienated TV viewers.

  • Kennedy's Style: Spoke directly to the American people, offering a "vision for the future," appearing as the clear winner to TV viewers.

  • Nixon's Visual Disadvantage: Described as "tense, almost frightened, at turns glowering and, occasionally, haggard-looking to the point of sickness." Media noted Kennedy as the winner, Nixon as unwell.

The Second Debate (October 7)

  • Nixon's Image Remediation: Wore professional makeup, thermostat set to 7070 degrees to prevent perspiration.

  • Key Issues: Cuba (Kennedy accused Eisenhower of "losing Cuba"), Civil Rights (Nixon proposed economic solutions, Kennedy criticized lack of federal support), Nixon's experience, and a sharp clash over Quemoy and Matsu.

  • Image Still Dominant: The Times noted the "battle of 'images'" remained intensely interesting.

The Third Debate (October 13)

  • Unique Format: Kennedy in New York, Nixon in Los Angeles, connected electronically.

  • Nixon's Best Performance: Seen as his strongest, forceful and at ease, likely benefiting from not sharing the stage with Kennedy.

  • Quemoy and Matsu: Continued as a major clash; Nixon framed Kennedy as soft on communism, warning against abandonment of the islands.

  • Outcome: Nixon was the clear winner, putting Kennedy on the defensive.

The Fourth Debate (October 21)

  • "Dreary" and "Tepid": Largely rehashing previous topics.

  • Kennedy's Opening: Delivered a powerful appeal for greater U.S. strength against the Soviets.

  • Cuba Takes Center Stage: Kennedy advocated training anti-Castro Cubans; Nixon, aware of covert operations, argued against direct intervention, favoring an economic quarantine.

  • Quemoy and Matsu Revisited: Kennedy aligned his stance with Eisenhower's 1955 policy, defending the islands as part of Taiwan's defense. Nixon countered with historical parallels.

  • Heated Exchange: Kennedy strongly defended his criticisms of leadership against Nixon's implied challenge. Moderator Quincy Howe recognized the campaign as the "first truly modern presidential campaign."

  • Outcome: Kennedy secured a narrow victory, neutralizing the Quemoy and Matsu issue.

Overall Impact and Legacy of the Debates

  • Kennedy's Decisive Win:

    • Poll Shift: Kennedy moved from behind to a lead (51%51 \% to 45%45 \%) after the debates.

    • Legitimacy: Proved his qualification and equal standing with Nixon.

    • Party Unification: Rallied Democratic leaders and voters, boosting enthusiasm.

  • Policy Differences: Often by degree:

    • Housing: Kennedy wanted 22 million public units annually; Nixon favored more spending but no specific number.

    • Education: Kennedy sought direct federal money for teachers; Nixon preferred state funding for construction.

    • Medical Care: Kennedy proposed Social Security funding; Nixon supported federal aid for private insurance.

  • Fundamental Distinction: Kennedy favored direct federal funding/regulation; Nixon leaned towards state/private enterprise.

  • "Managerial Revolution": Critics saw both as "completely packaged products," highlighting similar broad principles.

  • Pollyannaish Optimism: Both shared a belief in America's ability to solve problems, reflecting post-WWII confidence.

  • Interruption and Return of Debates: Debates were interrupted after 1960 (Johnson avoiding, Nixon refusing) and did not resume until Gerald Ford debated Jimmy Carter in 19761976.

  • Lasting Legacy: The 1960 debates fundamentally transformed American politics, making image crucial. Kennedy praised them, while Nixon (post-loss) cynically questioned their focus on "showmanship than on statesmanship." The outcome "almost certainly" would have been different without them.