Comprehensive Advanced Biology Study Guide (Units 5–10)
Advanced Biology Unit 5: Cell Growth, Division, and Differentiation (Chapter 11)
Unit Terminology and Definitions
Cell Division: The process by which a parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells.
Asexual Reproduction: A mode of reproduction by which offspring arise from a single organism and inherit the genes of that parent only; it does not involve the fusion of gametes.
Sexual Reproduction: The production of new living organisms by combining genetic information from two individuals of different types (sexes).
Chromosome: A threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.
Chromatin: The material of which the chromosomes of organisms other than bacteria (i.e., eukaryotes) are composed. It consists of protein, RNA, and DNA.
Nucleosome: A structural unit of a eukaryotic chromosome, consisting of a length of DNA coiled around a core of histones.
Cell Cycle: The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and duplication of its DNA to produce two daughter cells.
Interphase: The resting phase between successive mitotic divisions of a cell, or between the first and second divisions of meiosis.
Mitosis: A type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.
Cytokinesis: The cytoplasmic division of a cell at the end of mitosis or meiosis, bringing about the separation into two daughter cells.
Prophase: The first stage of cell division, before metaphase, during which the chromosomes become visible as paired chromatids and the nuclear envelope disappears.
Chromatid: Each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA.
Centromere: The region of a chromosome to which the microtubules of the spindle attach, via the kinetochore, during cell division.
Centriole: A minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of spindle fibers in cell division.
Metaphase: The second stage of cell division, between prophase and anaphase, during which the chromosomes become attached to the spindle fibers.
Anaphase: The stage of meiotic or mitotic cell division in which the chromosomes move away from one another to opposite poles of the spindle.
Telophase: The final phase of cell division, between anaphase and interphase, in which the chromatids or chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and two nuclei are formed.
Growth Factor: A substance, such as a vitamin or hormone, that is required for the stimulation of growth in living cells.
Cyclin: Any of a number of proteins associated with the cycles of cell division which are thought to initiate certain processes of synthesis or mitosis.
Apoptosis: The death of cells which occurs as a normal and controlled part of an organism's growth or development.
Cancer: A disease in which abnormal cells divide uncontrollably and destroy body tissue.
Tumor: A swelling of a part of the body, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue, whether benign or malignant.
Embryo: An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development, in particular a human offspring during the period from approximately the second to the eighth week after fertilization.
Differentiation: The process by which a cell becomes specialized in order to perform a specific function, as in the case of a liver cell, a blood cell, or a neuron.
Stem Cell: An undifferentiated cell of a multicellular organism which is capable of giving rise to indefinitely more cells of the same type, and from which certain other kinds of cell arise by differentiation.
Totipotent: (Of a stem cell) capable of giving rise to any cell type or (of a blastomere) a complete embryo.
Pluripotent: (Of a stem cell) capable of giving rise downwards to several different cell types.
Multipotent: (Of a stem cell) can develop into more than one cell type, but are more limited than pluripotent cells.
Regenerative Medicine: A branch of translational research in tissue engineering and molecular biology which deals with the "process of replacing, engineering or regenerating human cells, tissues or organs to restore or establish normal function."
Key Biological Principles of Cell Growth
Diffusion Efficiency: Cellular diffusion is optimized when the surface area of the cell is high relative to a low volume. This ensures efficient transport of nutrients and waste.
Life Cycle Duration: Cells spend approximately of their lifespan in Interphase. This phase encompasses cell growth, DNA replication, and preparation for division.
Purpose of Mitotic Division: Multicellular organisms utilize mitotic cell division for two primary reasons: * Growth of the organism. * Replacement of dying or damaged cells.
Asexual Reproduction Patterns: Most unicellular and some multicellular organisms reproduce via asexual methods.
Cellular Specialization: Multicellular organisms possess specialized cells tailored to perform a wide variety of biological functions.
Mastery Objectives and Applied Skills
Size and Function: Students must be able to describe how the physical size of a cell affects its ability to function efficiently.
Cycle Regulation: Exploration of the importance of growth phases and the regulation of the cell cycle, including predicting biological consequences if regulation is altered.
Mitosis Modeling: Ability to create and use models to explain specific phases of mitosis (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase).
Genetic Diversity: Explaining why asexual strategies lack genetic diversity while sexual strategies promote it.
Stem Cell Differentiation: Understanding the mechanism by which mature cells differentiate from stem cells and distinguishing between totipotent, pluripotent, and multipotent types.
Advanced Biology Unit 6: Genetics and Meiosis (Chapters 12 & 15.1-15.2)
Genetic Vocabulary and Classification
Genetics: The study of heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics.
Fertilization: The action or process of fertilizing an egg involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote.
Trait: A genetically determined characteristic.
Hybrid: The offspring of two plants or animals of different species or varieties.
Gene: A unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.
Allele: One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
Principle of Dominance: Mendel's second law, stating that some alleles are dominant and others are recessive.
Segregation: The separation of pairs of alleles at meiosis and their independent transmission via separate gametes.
Gamete: A mature haploid male or female germ cell which is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote.
Probability: The extent to which an event is likely to occur, measured by the ratio of the favorable cases to the whole number of cases possible.
Homozygous: Having two identical alleles of a particular gene.
Heterozygous: Having two different alleles of a particular gene.
Phenotype: The set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.
Genotype: The genetic constitution of an individual organism.
Punnett Square: A square diagram that is used to predict the genotypes of a particular cross or breeding experiment.
Independent Assortment: The principle, originated by Gregor Mendel, stating that when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production.
Incomplete Dominance: A form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a specific trait is not completely expressed over its paired allele.
Codominance: A form of inheritance wherein the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed.
Multiple Alleles: Three or more alternative forms of a gene (alleles) that can occupy the same locus.
Polygenic Trait: A characteristic, such as height or skin color, that is influenced by two or more genes.
Homologous: (Of chromosomes) pairing at meiosis and having the same structural features and pattern of genes.
Diploid: Containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent ().
Haploid: Having a single set of unpaired chromosomes ().
Meiosis: A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes.
Tetrad: A group or set of four; specifically, a set of four chromatids formed by replication of a single pair of homologous chromosomes.
Crossing-over: The exchange of genes between homologous chromosomes, resulting in a mixture of parental characteristics in offspring.
Genome: The complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism.
Karyotype: The number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species.
Sex Chromosome: A chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds (X or Y).
Autosome: Any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.
Sex-linked Gene: A gene located on a sex chromosome.
Pedigree: A diagram showing the lineage or genealogy of an individual and all the direct ancestors, usually to analyze or exploit their characteristics.
Nondisjunction: The failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally during nuclear division, usually resulting in an abnormal distribution of chromosomes in the daughter nuclei.
Fundamental Principles of Inheritance
Mendelian Inheritance: The investigation of single-gene traits reveals the basis for understanding patterns of inheritance.
Non-Mendelian Realities: Most biological traits do not adhere to strict Mendelian patterns.
Predictive Modeling: Inheritance of parent traits to offspring is predictable using biological models.
Sexual Reproduction and Meiosis: Required by most eukaryotes to produce genetic variation in a population.
Chromosomal Disorders: Occur via alterations in chromosomal structure or number, impairing development and function.
Mastery Objectives and Applied Skills
Genotype vs. Phenotype: Explaining the difference between genetic makeup and outward physical appearance.
Inheritance Prediction: Using data, pedigrees, and Punnett squares to analyze probability and patterns (including Mendelian and non-Mendelian).
Reduction Division: Explaining the necessity of meiosis to produce haploid gametes.
Meiosis and Fertilization: Analyzing how the halving of chromosome numbers followed by fertilization leads to genetic diversity.
Genomics: Examining structurally altered chromosomes and using data to identify chromosomal disorders.
Advanced Biology Unit 7: RNA & Protein Synthesis (Chapter 14)
Molecular Biology Vocabulary
RNA: Ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins.
Messenger RNA (mRNA): The form of RNA in which genetic information transcribed from DNA as a sequence of bases is transferred to a ribosome.
Transfer RNA (tRNA): RNA consisting of folded molecules which transport amino acids from the cytoplasm of a cell to a ribosome.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Type of RNA that combines with proteins to form ribosomes.
Transcription: The process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).
RNA Polymerase: An enzyme that is responsible for making RNA from a DNA template.
Promotor: A region of DNA where transcription of a gene initiates.
Intron: A segment of a DNA or RNA molecule which does not code for proteins and interrupts the sequence of genes.
Exon: A segment of a DNA or RNA molecule containing information coding for a protein or peptide sequence.
RNA Editing: A molecular process through which some cells can make discrete changes to specific nucleotide sequences within an RNA molecule after it has been generated by RNA polymerase.
Polypeptide: A linear organic polymer consisting of a large number of amino-acid residues bonded together in a chain, forming part of (or the whole of) a protein molecule.
Genetic Code: The nucleotide triplets of DNA and RNA molecules that carry genetic information in living cells.
Codon: A sequence of three nucleotides which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.
Translation: The process by which a sequence of nucleotide triplets in a messenger RNA molecule gives rise to a specific sequence of amino acids during synthesis of a polypeptide or protein.
Anticodon: A sequence of three nucleotides forming a unit of genetic code in a transfer RNA molecule, corresponding to a complementary codon in messenger RNA.
Mutation: The changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations.
Point Mutation: A mutation affecting only one or very few nucleotides in a gene sequence.
Substitution: A mutation that exchanges one base for another.
Insertion: The addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence.
Deletion: A mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is lost during DNA replication.
Frameshift Mutation: A genetic mutation caused by indels (insertions or deletions) of a number of nucleotides in a DNA sequence that is not divisible by three.
Mutagen: An agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, which causes genetic mutation.
Polyploidy: The state of a cell or organism having more than two paired (homologous) sets of chromosomes.
Protein Synthesis and Gene Expression
Structure and Function: The unique structure of RNA facilitates its role in protein synthesis.
Transcription Outcomes: The process of RNA synthesis (transcription) results in three distinct forms of RNA: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
Gene Expression Flow: Includes the transcribing of heritable information from DNA and the translation of that information into polypeptides.
Heredity of Mutations: Mutations constitute heritable changes to the DNA sequence.
Mastery Objectives and Applied Skills
Structural Comparison: Explaining the differences between DNA and RNA structure.
Information Transfer: Describing the transfer of info from DNA to RNA via transcription.
Protein Building: Explaining roles of mRNA, tRNA, and amino acids; demonstrating how genes express as proteins.
Phenotypic Linkage: Relating DNA structure to an organism's genotype and phenotype.
Analysis of Change: Predicting how changes in DNA sequences (mutations) affect protein structure, function, and phenotypic outcomes.
Advanced Biology Unit 8: Biotechnology (Chapters 15.3 & 16)
Biotechnology Terminology
Restriction Enzyme: An enzyme produced chiefly by certain bacteria, having the property of cleaving DNA molecules at or near a specific sequence of bases.
Gel Electrophoresis: A laboratory method used to separate mixtures of DNA, RNA, or proteins according to molecular size.
Selective Breeding: The process by which humans use animal breeding and plant breeding to selectively develop particular phenotypic traits.
Biotechnology: The exploitation of biological processes for industrial and other purposes, especially the genetic manipulation of microorganisms for the production of antibiotics, hormones, etc.
Hybridization: The process of an animal or plant breeding with an individual of another species or variety.
Inbreeding: Breed from closely related people or animals, especially over many generations.
PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): A method widely used in molecular biology to rapidly make many copies of a specific DNA sample.
Recombinant DNA: DNA that has been formed artificially by combining constituents from different organisms.
Plasmid: A genetic structure in a cell that can replicate independently of the chromosomes, typically a small circular DNA strand in the cytoplasm of a bacterium.
Transformation: The genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the direct uptake and incorporation of exogenous genetic material from its surroundings.
Genetic Marker: A gene or DNA sequence with a known location on a chromosome that can be used to identify individuals or species.
Transgenic: Relating to or denoting an organism that contains genetic material into which DNA from an unrelated organism has been artificially introduced.
Clone: An organism or cell, or group of organisms or cells, produced asexually from one ancestor or stock, to which they are genetically identical.
CRISPR: A technology that can be used to edit genes.
Gene Therapy: The transplantation of normal genes into cells in place of missing or defective ones in order to correct genetic disorders.
DNA Microarray: A collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface used to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously.
DNA Fingerprinting: The analysis of DNA from samples of body tissues or fluids, especially when conducted in order to identify individuals.
Forensics: Scientific tests or techniques used in connection with the detection of crime.
Scientific Objectives and Applications
Heredity Engineering: Biotechnology empowers scientists to study and engineer the heritable traits of various organisms.
Manipulation Techniques: Knowledge of how to study and manipulate DNA using restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis.
Ethics and Implications: Evaluation of the potential benefits and consequences of DNA manipulation.
Advanced Biology Unit 9: Evolution (Chapters 17, 18.1-18.3, 20.2)
Evolutionary Vocabulary
Evolution: The process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
Fossil: The remains or impression of a prehistoric organism preserved in petrified form or as a mold or cast in rock.
Artificial Selection: The identification by humans of desirable traits in plants and animals, and the steps taken to enhance and perpetuate those traits in future generations.
Wallace (Alfred Russel Wallace): A British naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, biologist and illustrator; co-discoverer of natural selection.
Darwin (Charles Darwin): An English naturalist, geologist and biologist, best known for his contributions to the science of evolution.
Adaptation: A change or the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment.
Fitness: The biological condition of being able to survive to reproductive age and produce offspring.
Natural Selection: The process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Biogeography: The branch of biology that deals with the geographical distribution of plants and animals.
Homologous Structure: Organs or skeletal elements of animals and organisms that, by virtue of their similarity, suggest their connection to a common ancestor.
Vestigial Structure: Structures that have no apparent function and appear to be residual parts from a past ancestor.
Analogous Structure: Features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature.
Gene Pool: The stock of different genes in an interbreeding population.
Allele Frequency: The relative frequency of an allele (variant of a gene) at a particular locus in a population.
Single-gene Trait: A trait controlled by only one gene.
Polygenic Trait: A trait controlled by two or more genes.
Directional Selection: A mode of natural selection in which an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype.
Stabilizing Selection: A type of natural selection in which the population mean stabilizes on a particular non-extreme trait value.
Disruptive Selection: Changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values.
Genetic Drift: Variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population, owing to the chance disappearance of particular genes as individuals die or do not reproduce.
Bottleneck Effect: A sharp reduction in the size of a population due to environmental events.
Founder Effect: The loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population.
Genetic Equilibrium: An condition where a gene pool is not changing in frequency because the evolutionary forces acting upon the population are balanced.
Hardy-Weinberg Principle: A principle stating that allele and genotype frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation in the absence of other evolutionary influences.
Sexual Selection: Natural selection arising through preference by one sex for certain characteristics in individuals of the other sex.
Gene Flow: The transfer of genetic material from one population to another.
Speciation: The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.
Reproductive Isolation: The inability of a species to breed successfully with related species due to geographical, behavioral, physiological, or genetic barriers.
Behavioral Isolation: An important evolutionary mechanism that helps members of the same species identify each other as proper mates.
Geographical Isolation: A physical barrier that prevents two populations from interbreeding.
Temporal Isolation: A mechanism that prevents species from mating because they breed at different times.
Macroevolutionary Pattern: Grand-scale changes in the history of life, such as the stability, gradual change, and lineage-splitting.
Background Extinction: The standard rate of extinction in Earth's geological and biological history before humans became a primary contributor.
Mass Extinction: The extinction of a large number of species within a relatively short period of geological time.
Gradualism: The theory which holds that profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes.
Punctuated Equilibrium: The hypothesis that evolutionary development is marked by isolated episodes of rapid speciation between long periods of little or no change.
Adaptive Radiation: The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches.
Convergent Evolution: The process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.
Coevolution: The influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.
Core Principles of Evolutionary Theory
Unity and Diversity: All life result from over years of evolutionary processes.
Evidence Sources: Evolutionary relationships are established through various evidence sources, modeled via cladograms and phylogenetic trees.
Natural Selection Mechanism: A selective mechanism leading to adaptations.
Speciation Process: Occurs when populations are separated, reducing gene flow and allowing them to become genetically distinct.
Temporal Variation: Rates of speciation and extinction fluctuate in response to Earth's changing environmental conditions.
Mastery Objectives and Applied Skills
Claim Support: Using scientific evidence (homologies, fossils) to support claims of common ancestry.
Model Analysis: Creating and analyzing models of evolutionary relationships.
Fitness and Selection: Describing how selective pressures affect fitness and cause shifts in phenotypic/allele frequencies.
Genetic Disruption: Predicting allele frequency shifts in response to environmental change.
Speciation Mechanics: Explaining geographic separation and reproductive isolation.
Historical Analysis: Using evidence to support the claim that speciation rates have varied across Earth's history and explaining how environmental change causes extinction.
Advanced Biology Unit 10: Human Body Systems
System Vocabulary
Digestive System: Breaks down food into nutrients.
Excretory System: Removes waste from the body.
Circulatory System: Transports oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells and removes waste products.
Respiratory System: Takes in oxygen and expels carbon dioxide.
Nervous System: Transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
Skeletal System: Provides structural support and protection for internal organs.
Muscular System: Responsible for the movement of the human body.
Endocrine System: Composed of glands that secrete hormones.
Reproductive System: Organs and glands in the organism that allow for reproduction.
Immune System: The body\'s defense against infectious organisms and other invaders.
Core Principles of Homeostasis
Dynamic Homeostasis: Multicellular organisms rely on integration between tissues and organ systems to transport nutrients and manage waste to maintain balance.
Mastery Objectives and Applied Skills
System Functions: Identifying main functions and major organs of each of the ten body systems.
Interaction: Explaining how different organ systems cooperate to maintain a homeostatic state.
Prediction of Failure: Predicting biological consequences when homeostasis is disrupted.