1930s International Relations Notes

3.1 The Rise of Extremism and International Relations in the 1930s

• $1929$: Wall Street Crash initiates the Great Depression, a severe global economic downturn.
• Ideological Shift: Economic hardship undermines confidence in democratic capitalism; appeal of extremist ideologies grows.
• Global Impact: Depression affects Europe, Asia, and the Americas; increases political uncertainty.
• Rise of Totalitarian Regimes: Germany, Italy, and Japan gain influence as alternatives to failed democracies.
  • Germany: Hitler’s rise, Nazi regime dismantles democracy, centralises control, and suppresses opposition.
  • Italy: Mussolini’s fascism exploits unrest; aggressive nationalism and authoritarian rule.
  • Japan: Militaristic expansion driven by resources needs and regional dominance.
• Impact on International Relations: Shift in power dynamics and growth of tensions that prefigure WWII.

3.2 Hitler’s Aggressive Foreign Policy: Stages and Global Response

• Rearmament (1933–1935): Germany secretly rebuilds army, navy, and Luftwaffe; exceeds Treaty of Versailles limits; deepens economic and military strain on Europe.
  • Global Response: Britain and France reluctant to confront Germany; appeasement sentiment grows amid depression.
• Rhineland (1936): Remilitarisation of the Rhine borders; strategic good fortune for Hitler as France is divided, Britain tolerates; League credibility declines.
• Anschluss (1938): Annexation of Austria; minimal international resistance; highlights impotence of the League and appeasement.
• Sudetenland & Munich Agreement (1938): Demands for Sudetenland; Munich Conference allows annexation without Czech participation; perceived as appeasement and a failure of collective security.
• Czechoslovakia and beyond (1938–1939): Occupation of Czechia; followed by the invasion of Poland; end of appeasement era.
• Nazi–Soviet Pact (1939): Non-aggression pact with secret protocol to divide Eastern Europe; paves way for invasion of Poland.
• War onset: Britain and France declare war after Poland’s invasion in 1939.
• Global Response & Consequences:
  • Appeasement generally emboldened German aggression; weakened the League of Nations; shifted power dynamics in Europe.
  • Demonstrated failure of European powers to confront expanding totalitarian regimes early enough.

3.3 League of Nations and the Failure of Disarmament

• Disarmament Aim: The League sought to reduce armaments and promote collective security.
• Key Conferences & Proposals:
  • Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932–1934): Central effort to reduce armaments among major powers.
  • Prior frameworks: Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922) set precedents for arms reduction.
• Reasons for Failure:
  • Economic: Great Depression shifts the focus to domestic recovery; heavy military spending as employment stimulus.
  • Nationalism: Totalitarian regimes resist disarmament; strategic security concerns overshadow collective goals.
  • Enforceability: League lacked its own military force; enforcement depended on unanimous major powers.
  • Major Power Dynamics: USA non-membership weakens enforcement and legitimacy; inconsistent commitments from others.
• Consequences:
  • Erosion of League credibility and effectiveness; rising unilateral/bilateral action over collective security.
  • Set stage for the rearmament and conflicts that culminate in WWII.
• Notable Points:
  • Geneva Disarmament Conference: marked by proposals and counter-proposals; Germany’s withdrawal in 1933.
  • Role of the UK/France: Divergent stances on security guarantees and arms reduction.

3.4 The Manchuria and Abyssinia Crises

• Manchuria Crisis (1931–1932):
  • Japan invades Manchuria; violates international agreements.
  • League response: Condemns invasion but sanctions are weak; Japan creates Manchukuo and withdraws from the League in 1933.
• Abyssinia Crisis (1935–1936):
  • Italy (Mussolini) invades Abyssinia; sanctions are limited and half-hearted.
  • Hoare–Laval Pact (leaked): Secret attempt to concede parts of Abyssinia to Italy; damages League credibility.
• League Critique:
  • Inadequate sanctions: Focus on symbolic measures; oil and key resources not effectively targeted.
  • Diplomatic shortfalls: Lytton Report condemns actions but fails to prompt decisive action; lack of united front.
• Implications:
  • Erosion of authority and credibility of the League.
  • Encouraged aggressors and realignment of international power, pushing Italy toward Germany; weakened collective security.
  • Foreshadowed the need for a stronger international framework (post-WWII United Nations).

3.5 Major Powers’ Attitudes Toward the League

• Britain:
  • Early enthusiasm for collective security; economic crisis drives policy shift toward appeasement.
  • Munich 1938 signals abandonment of League-based security in favor of bilateral diplomacy.
• France:
  • Initially supports League to constrain Germany; later pivots to national defense and alliances outside the League (e.g., Maginot Line).
• USSR:
  • Initial distrust; attempts at rapprochement (Franco-Soviet Mutual Assistance Pact, 1935) limited by British non-participation and mutual suspicion.
• United States:
  • Never joins the League; strong isolationist stance weakens collective security.
• Italy & Japan:
  • Move from League members to openly challenging League authority with Abyssinia and Manchuria.
• Overall effect:
  • Erosion of the League’s crisis-management credibility; increasing pursuit of national/region-based interests.

3.6 The Policy of Appeasement

• Context:
  • Post-WWI economic constraints; reduced defense budgets in Britain and France; pacifist public mood.
  • Military unpreparedness for a large European war; focus on deterrence and diplomacy rather than confrontation.
• Key Appeasement Actions:
  • German rearment (1935): Diplomatic protests replace military action; Versailles violations ignored.
  • Rhineland remilitarization (1936): Largely unchallenged by Britain/France; emboldens further steps.
  • Anschluss (1938): Little international reaction; demonstrates alignment of German and Austrian ambitions.
  • Munich Agreement (1938): Cedes Sudetenland to Germany without Czech input; viewed as peak of appeasement.
• Costs and Outcomes:
  • Temporary peace at the cost of emboldening aggression and undermining smaller states.
  • Weakens League credibility and shifts power toward Nazi expansion.
  • Public opinion initially supports appeasement but shifts as threats grow.
• Opposition & External Roles:
  • Critics: Winston Churchill and others warn of long-term consequences.
  • United States: Isolationism reduces external pressure on aggressors.
• Spectral Lessons:
  • Appeasement delays confrontation but risks greater conflict later; highlights tension between realpolitik and moralpolitik.

3.7 The Munich Crisis and Czechoslovakia

• Sudeten Crisis & Negotiations:
  • Sudeten German Party, led by Konrad Henlein, presses for autonomy; used by Hitler as pretext for intervention.
  • Munich Conference (Sept 29, 1938) excludes Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union; concession without Czech consent.
• Outcomes for Czechoslovakia:
  • Sudetenland ceded; significant border defenses and industrial resources lost; internal destabilization.
  • Government destabilization; Beneš resigns; boosts anti-German sentiment.
• Broader European Impact:
  • Weakening of the League; appeasement seen as a failure; emboldenment of Nazi expansion.
  • Shifts in alliances and strategies; moves toward more assertive action against Germany.
• Lessons:
  • Diplomacy without the input of affected states undermines legitimacy.
  • Realpolitik vs moral responsibility in international crisis management.

3.8 Prelude to War: The Final Straws

• British Rearmament & Policy Shift:

  • From pacifism to rearmament; focus on RAF and modernizing armed forces; guarantee to Poland marks end of appeasement.

• The Nazi–Soviet Pact (Aug 1939):

  • Non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union; secret protocol to divide Eastern Europe, including Poland.
  • Removes a key deterrent to German aggression in Poland.

• Invasion of Poland & WWII Onset:

  • Poland invaded on 1 Sept 1939; Soviet invasion from the east on 17 Sept 1939.
  • Britain and France declare war on Germany on 3 Sept 1939; WWII begins.

• Consequences for Poland:

  • Rapid occupation and partition by Germany and the USSR.
  • Reconfiguration of European security and alliances; global conflict follows.

• Global Repercussions:

  • Demonstrates limits of appeasement and League mechanisms; accelerates shift to collective military commitments.

• Important recurring themes across the era:

  • Economic distress fuels political extremism and undermines democracies.
  • Appeasement as a policy often delays conflict but makes it more costly later.
  • League of Nations’ credibility declines with inability to stop aggression; failure to enforce collective security.
  • Strategic alliances (e.g., Nazi–Soviet Pact, Anglo-Polish defense) shape the outbreak and course of WWII.
  • The shift from collective security to realpolitik and bilateral or regional arrangements becomes dominant.

Quick reference dates and figures

• $1929$: Beginning of the Great Depression
• $1931$: Manchuria invasion begins
• $1932-1934$: Geneva Disarmament Conference
• $1935-1936$: Abyssinia Crisis; Hoare–Laval Pact
• $1936$: Rhineland remilitarisation
• $1938$: Anschluss; Munich Agreement
• $1939$: Nazi–Soviet Pact; invasion of Poland; start of WWII