Social Welfare and Education 1918-1939

Social Welfare Plan

  • Time period: Theme 1 - economics, politics, and industrial relations; Theme 2 - welfare; Theme 3 - society; Theme 4 - living standards
  • Overlapping themes: Unemployment was a significant issue, overlapping with industrial relations.
  • Social Welfare Provision:
    1. Social Security
    2. Health
    3. Education
  • Historical Context:
    • Victorian era: Survival of the fittest.
    • Later: Introduction of free school meals, health checks, and benefits.
    • Labour Party: Expanded welfare; response to socialist/communist concerns.
    • Thatcher era: Welfare state diminished but remains important.
  • Victorian Legacy:
    • Private charity was preferred for aiding the poor.
    • Local, voluntary, and charitable organizations administered most welfare.
    • Poor Law: Local landowners/businesses supported workhouses.
    • Limited government involvement.
    • Attitudes led to poverty and death in workhouses.
  • Changing Political Consensus:
    • 1911: Unemployment insurance provided 7 shillings a week for fifteen weeks annually.
    • Maternity allowance introduced, covering only 10% of workers.
    • Job searches encouraged while on benefits.
    • Labor exchanges (job centers) played a significant role.
  • Pre-War Liberal Government Welfare Reforms (1918+):
    • Unemployment insurance and maternity allowance provided.
    • Job seeking encouraged.
    • Increased involvement in welfare.
    • Limitations: Insurance covered only 10% of workers, 7 shillings was insufficient (average wage 20), and only covered men.
  • Government Attitudes Towards Unemployment Benefits:
    • Ministry of Reconstruction report (February 1918): Advocated centralized insurance to avoid future problems and demoralization (socialism).
    • Insurance seen as a return for contributions.
  • State Taking Responsibility (1920s):
    • Reasons:
      • Fear of worker revolution (like Russia 1917).
      • High unemployment post-WWI.
      • Need to support soldiers.
  • Means Test:
    • Lack of means test for unemployment benefits was significant.
    • Political and economic pragmatism, changing ideologies, threat from the Left.
    • Child benefit: Universal, not means-tested.
    • Unemployment benefit: Entitlement regardless of wealth.
    • Objective: Prevent socialist/communist uprisings.
    • National insurance: Employer-matched contributions.
  • Models of Social Welfare (20th Century):
    • Victorian Legacy: Self-help and charity.
    • Liberal Welfare Reforms (1906-14): Increased government role, but only 4.7% of GDP in 1913.
    • Post-WWI: Increased state provision due to economic, political, and geopolitical factors; 10.5% of GDP by 1937.
    • Post-WWII: Welfare State creation, expansion of welfare, c40% of GDP by 1979.
    • Post-1979: Demographic and political challenges, spending c50% of GDP.
  • Acts of 1931 and 1934:
    • Tensions: Economic prudence vs. state protection.
    • Controversial Differences:
      • Means testing introduced.
      • Transitional payments required labor exchange registration.
      • Local Public Assistance Committee investigated claimants.
    • MacDonald's Labour Roots: Actions contradicted Labour ideologies.
  • Hunger Marches (1930s):
    • Communist Party's National Unemployed Workers Movement (1921).
    • Protests against the means test.
    • Jarrow Crusade (1936).
    • Government restricted media coverage of poverty and protest.
  • Exam Question:
    • Fear of revolution was a key factor in social welfare provision 1918-39. (Example)

Health Provisions

  • Models of Healthcare (20th Century):
    • Industrial Revolution Impact: Urbanization and industrialization affected living and working conditions.
    • Localized Provision: Patchwork system; epidemics and germ theory increased pressure for national reforms.
    • Liberal Welfare Reforms (1906-14): Increased government role (e.g., school meals, pensions, medical inspections).
    • Scientific Breakthroughs: Vaccinations and antiseptics implemented nationwide.
    • World Wars Impact: Revolutionized medicine (e.g., surgical techniques, antibiotics).
    • Conscription and Rationing: Highlighted poor public health.
    • Beveridge Report and NHS: Key turning point in public health.
    • NHS Creation (1948): Free at point of use; political consensus.
    • Post-1979: Demographic, political, and ideological challenges.
    • Public Support: Remains high; spending increased x5 since 1979.
  • Preventative health innovation in the 1930’s:
    • 1938: Finsbury Health Centre, London
      • Radical humanitarian brief for deprived community. Encompassed modern progressive ideas.
      • Welcoming ambience to overcome apprehension associated with traditional hospitals.
      • Technologically advanced, with facilities such as a solarium and a lecture theatre
      • Addressed problems such as lice, poor hygiene and TB.
    • Pioneer Health Centre, Peckham
      • Opened in 1935; run as a family club to encourage healthy living. Ran activities: Swimming, Badminton, Dancing etc
      • Allowed families to explore the benefits of exercise and healthy living and gave annual health checkups
      • Explored the social aspects/benefits of exercise classes and community forming.
  • Healthcare Streamlining (by 1939):
    • Pressure to streamline due to wartime healthcare needs.
    • Important to have health care provisions that can combat health issues arising during the war.
  • Health Provisions Overview (1918-39):
    • Patchy during interwar years.
    • Local health authorities and charitable institutions operated some hospitals.
    • Healthcare was primarily private.
    • Improvements occurred, but less affluent areas lagged.
    • 1911: National health insurance for low-paid employees.
    • Private charities supported healthcare for the poor.
    • Poor Law provided medical care in Poor Law Hospitals.
  • Healthcare Consensus:
    • Emphasis on government coordination, medical advances, research investment, national hospital network, and increased spending.
    • Disagreements over government role.
    • Fabian Society: Advocated centralized healthcare.
    • Labour Party: Advocated free/comprehensive national health service (1919).
    • British Medical Association (BMA): Advocated regional healthcare.
    • Dawson Report (1920): Recommended state-funded/organized hospitals.
    • Royal Commission (1926): Recommended regional structure with compulsory health insurance.
    • Voluntary Hospitals Commission (1935): Advocated merging voluntary and local authority hospitals.
    • Report on British Health Services (1937): Recommended government-planned/funded regional model.
  • Government Reforms (1919-29):
    • Expanded government role in healthcare.
    • 1919: Ministry of Health established, coordinated health at regional level
    • Tuberculosis (TB): Medical Research Council (MRC) established to research TB with the creation of the Minister Of Health Act 1919.
    • Tuberculosis Act 1921: Compulsory provision of TB sanatoria by local authorities.
    • Local Government Act 1929: Transferred Poor Law hospitals to councils, enabled conversion to public hospitals.
  • Healthcare in the Depression:
    • Less than half insured against illness.
    • Focus on affordable services for the poor.
    • Poverty led to higher illness rates.
    • Debate on efficient provision methods.
  • Healthcare by 1939:
    • Public health improved (e.g., infant mortality decline).
    • Disparities persisted based on class; poorer people were still more at risk. Middle class men live 12 years and middle class women lived 19 years longer than working class.
    • British healthcare lagged (Political and Economic Planning)
    • Ministry of Health discussed regional health boards.
  • Essay technique:
    • Point, evidence and explanation are needed to get the highest mark.
    • Explanation is key
    • Explanation requires claim, relationship (because) and justification
    • Weigh up at least two factors and address what radical means to get the highest marks.

Education

  • Interwar Period:
    • Increased equality - more opportunities for women
  • 20th Century Changes:
    • Post-WWI reconstruction.
    • Increased centralisation of funding.
    • Mix of provision - highly variable
    • School leaving age of 14. Grammar and technical schools after 14.
    • Universities were increasing accessible but highly limited.
  • 1944 Butler Act and WWII:
    • Major extension of compulsory and free schooling.
    • 11+ exam.
    • Reports highlight need to expand technical and scientific education.
  • 1960s:
    • Comprehensive schools.
    • Rise of progressive education.
    • Expansion of university after Robbins Report 1961 but continued elitism
    • Education as key aspect of social mobility and equality.
  • Thatcher Revolution (after 1987):
    • Clash with the ‘Establishment’ - attempt to wrest control from ‘socialist’ LEAs, unions, universities etc.
    • Reform from above: National Curriculum, GCSEs, SATs, marketplace for parents, league table and inspection reports, Research Assessment Exercise, funding cuts, greater accountability
    • Beginning of the end of grants - start of Student Loan funding
  • New Labour (1997-2007):
    • “Education, Education, Education”
    • National Curriculum updated and made more flexible
    • Modular and vocational A Levels Introduced Academies
    • Huge expansion in HE numbers
  • Exam Question:
    • To what extent was 1918-39 a period of ‘consolidation’ or ‘transformation’ in education provision?
  • Education Provisions - Background:
    • For most children - education provided by local education authorities (LEAs)
    • Provisions very patchy before becoming compulsory (1872 Scotland, 1880 England & Wales).
    • State plugged gap in education as newly enfranchised workers needed education for votes.
    • 1902 Education Act: Increased chances of working-class children getting grammar school education.
  • Education Provisions - Foreground:
    • 1926 Hadow Committee highlighted incomplete records and difference of education provisions in different areas. Committee recommended the abolition of elementary schools and division into primary and secondary schools
    • Elementary education was free and some authorities provided secondary / technical schools that students transferred to at 11 but the quality of education was varied.
    • 1931 - Shows uneven education provision - 20% of children were in some form of secondary education
    • The 1918 Act also created grant-funded grammar schools / central schools, as another type of secondary education.
    • Oxford and Cambride, together educated 22% of all students in 1939.
    • 1918 ‘Fisher’ Education Act - aimed to raise home fit for heroes, help widen access by raising leaving school age to 14.
    • 1926 - Hadow Report on improving education - to be replaced with primary and secondary - nothing was actioned due to unemployment / rearmament.
    • Tried again to increase school-leaving ago to 15 but failed.