The Terrible Decade, Part 3 (1859-1860)

Unit 13: The Gathering Storm - The 1850s

Overview of the 1850s

The 1850s is often regarded as one of the worst decades in American history, characterized by escalating divisions between the North and South. This era was marked by numerous events that fueled tensions, including John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, the contentious election of 1860, the Crittenden Compromise, and the subsequent secession of Southern states from the Union. The political, social, and economic ramifications of these events significantly shaped the pathway to the American Civil War.

John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry

Background

John Brown, a radical abolitionist from New England, became infamous for his extremist actions during the Bleeding Kansas conflict and was viewed by many as a martyr for the abolitionist cause. Brown held strong convictions against slavery, perceiving it as a grievous sin ordained by God. He believed he was chosen to bring about its end and developed a strategy for a violent uprising after garnering notoriety from the Potawatomi massacre, where he and his followers ruthlessly killed pro-slavery settlers.

The Raid Plan

Brown devised a detailed plan targeting the federal arsenal located in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. This site was strategically critical due to its extensive stockpile of weapons and its significance as a transportation and communication hub. His plan involved seizing arms and distributing them to enslaved individuals, with the hope of inspiring a larger slave army. Brown envisioned this as a first step to instigate a nationwide guerrilla war against the institution of slavery, aiming to destabilize it from within. However, the likelihood of success appeared grim, as many viewed the endeavor as a radical and treasonous act.

The Raid Itself

On October 16, 1859, Brown and twenty of his followers crossed into Virginia and executed their plan by seizing the federal arsenal. Initially, chaos ensued as local citizens became aware of their actions, resulting in a rapid breakdown of their organized efforts. A critical moment occurred when they killed a slave who witnessed the raid, sparking a backlash from the community. The arrival of a train in Harpers Ferry soon alerted authorities in Washington D.C. about the burgeoning rebellion. In response, President James Buchanan dispatched Colonel Robert E. Lee and a company of U.S. Marines to suppress the insurrection. After barricading themselves in a firehouse and facing overwhelming resistance, Brown and his men were quickly subdued and captured following a forceful assault by government troops.

Aftermath and Significance

The subsequent trial of John Brown captivated national attention. He chose to represent himself and utilized the platform to voice his beliefs, becoming a martyr for those advocating for the abolition of slavery. Brown was executed in December 1859, along with six of his followers, an event that incited widespread reactions across the nation. In the North, he garnered a heroic status among many who viewed him as a valiant figure willing to sacrifice his life for the freedom of others. Conversely, in the South, the raid incited profound fear of potential slave uprisings, being perceived as a direct terrorist attack on their way of life and institutions. Collectively, the raid pushed the South toward secession and exacerbated the already growing national divisions.

The Election of 1860

Key Players and Dynamics

The election of 1860 was pivotal in the tensions that ultimately culminated in civil war, featuring significant candidates from multiple parties. The Republican Party, which had gained momentum among Northern states, was firmly opposed to the expansion of slavery into new territories. Abraham Lincoln emerged as the Republican candidate, framing his campaign around the idea of halting slavery's spread. The Constitutional Union Party, a moderate faction prioritizing the preservation of the Union, put forth John Bell as their candidate. Meanwhile, the Democratic Party was deeply divided: Northern Democrats supported Stephen A. Douglas, who advocated for popular sovereignty, while Southern Democrats rallied behind John C. Breckenridge, who stood for a pro-slavery constitutional amendment.

Results of the Election

Lincoln emerged victorious without requiring any support from Southern states, winning the majority of electoral votes by capturing all free states. The electoral breakdown was Lincoln with 180 votes, Breckenridge with 72, Bell with 39, and Douglas with just 12. The outcome intensified immediate fears among Southern states, who interpreted his victory as a direct threat to their rights and a harbinger of abolishing slavery, prompting them to move toward secession.

Crittenden Compromise

Attempt to Avert Secession

In a last-ditch effort to maintain the Union and avert impending secession, Senator John J. Crittenden proposed a compromise that included several constitutional amendments. These suggestions aimed to guarantee the protection of slavery in areas where it already existed and to reinstate the Missouri Compromise line to allow for the continuation of slavery further south. While Lincoln and the Republican Party were open to ensuring the protections of existing slave states, they categorically rejected any proposals advocating the expansion of slavery into new territories. Ultimately, the failure of the Crittenden Compromise highlighted the deeply entrenched positions on both sides and indicated that secession was becoming inevitable.

First Wave of Secession

The first state to secede from the Union was South Carolina, which made its declaration on December 20, 1860, followed by six additional Southern states: Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These states justified their actions by referencing historical resolutions that supported their right to withdraw from the Union. They claimed to be acting in the interest of preserving their way of life in the face of what they perceived as an existential threat from Lincoln's election. This wave of secession marked the culmination of the decade's escalating tensions and set the stage for the outbreak of the American Civil War.