Interwar Period Ideologies and the Collapse of Democracy

The lecture focuses on the interwar period and the diverse ideologies that emerged during the 20th century: Democracy, Communism, and Fascism.
These ideologies presented different perspectives on human relations, economic structures, and social-political management.
The 20th century is referred to as the "age of ideologies," a term popularized by Karl Dietrich Brecher.

The lecture questions how old liberal democracy is in Europe, noting its relatively recent establishment in the 19th century.
The triumph of democracy and liberalism after World War I is discussed, followed by its subsequent collapse.
The lecture explores why democracy failed in parts of Europe and what ideologies replaced it, including Fascism.

Full-blown liberal democracy with universal suffrage and parliamentary control was rare before World War I.
Britain and the U.S. had elections, but they were not fully equal or inclusive.
By the start of World War I, some European countries had introduced liberal reforms, but these were incomplete.
Russia had a parliament that was quickly disbanded, and the Tsar still held significant power.
Few territories allowed women to vote; in Europe, only Finland and Denmark did.
Contrasting systems existed, such as universal male suffrage in Germany but government appointment by the Kaiser.
The end of World War I marked the widespread introduction of liberal democracy in Europe.
The war's impact led to mass mobilization and sacrifices, creating demands for political participation.
Revolutions and the threat of communism pushed ruling elites to make concessions.
Woodrow Wilson's ideas of liberalism and idealism further promoted democracy.
Democracy became fashionable, with countries copying U.S. and French constitutions without adequate social or political experience.

Samuel L.P. Huntington's book The Third Wave (1991) describes the third wave of democratization starting in the mid-1970s.
The first wave began in the 19th century with liberal reforms and culminated in the early 1920s with widespread democracy in Europe.
The lecturer quotes Eric Hobsbawm and Mark Mazower on Democracy’s retreat and alternatives being adopted.

Many countries that introduced democracy after World War I soon moved towards authoritarianism.
Between 1920 and 1938, the number of constitutional elected governments declined significantly.
People gave up on democracy, seeking alternatives, often supporting populist leaders who promised solutions.
The trend towards authoritarianism occurred globally, including in Asia and Latin America because of Western imperialism.
Strong states were created to counter Western influence, build national identity, and strengthen military capabilities.
Examples include Mustafa Ataturk in Turkey, Emperor Hirohito in Japan, Getúlio Vargas in Brazil, and Chiang Kai-shek in China.
Hostility to European and Western powers was a common factor, with varying local specificities (ex: Kemal copying Western Modernity)

By 1939, many European countries had transitioned to authoritarian regimes or full-blown fascist dictatorships.
This shift occurred as people rejected democracy as an unstable system and sought alternatives.
Mussolini and Hitler were often invited to become leaders, forming civil governments that later established dictatorships.

Democracy faced enormous hurdles after World War I because of revolutions and defeats.
The transition to authoritarianism varied in speed, with some countries like Hungary moving quickly and others like Germany taking longer.

Autocratic monarchy regimes transitioned to liberal democratic systems after World War I.
Inexperience led to political and socioeconomic instability, weak governments, and the threat of communism.
These factors pushed countries to abandon democracy and establish authoritarian regimes.
Hungary went through this process rapidly, while Germany took longer due to a strong middle class and working class.

The introduction of democracy occurred in an environment of unstable foundations.
Three main factors contributed to the collapse of democracy: the outcome of World War I, lack of democratic tradition, and economic issues.
Defeated countries associated democracy with humiliation and harsh peace conditions, like losing territories and paying significant reparations.
Even victorious countries like Italy felt dissatisfied, leading to crises and the rise of Mussolini.
Lack of democratic tradition and social bases in Eastern Europe made it difficult to build stable democracies.
Proportional representation led to numerous parties in parliament, making it difficult to form stable governments.
Populist mobilization attracted illiterate populations to strong leaders with simple messages.
Lukewarm elites, including those who lost power with the transition to democracy, were happy to push democracy away when it failed.
A civil war-like atmosphere with street fighting and political assassinations created a perception that democracy was unable to cope.

A strong economy is essential for building a stable democratic system.
Post-World War I Europe faced economic challenges, including legacies of war, and disrupted economic ties.
Newly created countries lacked industrial bases and faced economic weakness.
Inflation and currency collapse, such as in Germany in 1923, destroyed savings and created instability.
The Great Depression destroyed any chance of building democracy in Germany, leading to high unemployment and the rise of Hitler.

The successful revolution in Russia in 1917 and attempted revolutions elsewhere created the threat of communism.
This threat pushed societies to seek alternatives to democracy, which was seen as unable to protect them.
The belief that only fascism or national socialism could save society from communism was a significant factor.

Germany's humiliation, dissatisfaction with the peace treaty, and lukewarm elites contributed to its transition away from democracy.
A strong communist party and the rise of the Nazi party created a sense of urgency and threat.
Hyperinflation, the Great Depression, and a weak government led to the election of Hitler.

Communism failed outside Russia. Fascism and National Socialism only succeeded in Italy and Germany.
Authoritarian conservative monarchist regimes emerged, supported by the church and military.
These regimes fought against local fascist militias and sought to return to the old system.

Fascism is difficult to characterize because it is constantly in motion and lacks a clear definition.
Initial ideologies differed from the practice of fascism.
Mussolini started as a socialist and compromised to gain power and Hitler’s National Socialist party initially has socialistic goals, which were abandoned.

Obsession with national decline and victimhood.
Originates from the trenches of World War I.
Camaraderie group solidarity and rejection of individualism.
Focus on the group and national unity.
Radical action leads to national rebirth.
Embrace violence.
Anti-church, although the relation with the traditional elites is always very complicated.
No transnational fascism due to its nationalistic nature.
Italian fascism and German National Socialism differed significantly.