Uncovering the Hidden Iceberg: A Global Perspective

A new global dataset reveals alarming patterns of attacks against Indigenous Peoples, land and environmental defenders (ILEDs), exposing escalating and cyclical violence.
In 2022, there were:
- 916 non-lethal attacks reported by ALLIED.
- 177 killings reported by Global Witness.

Global Context and Conflicts

The Russia-Ukraine conflict onset in 2022 led to widespread displacement and loss of life.
Violence erupted across continents due to energy and infrastructure projects in India and Uganda, threatening communities and the environment.
In Tanzania, a game reserve threatened to evict the Massai.
Colombia and Guatemala face enduring violence against Indigenous land and environmental defenders, making them among the most violent countries for defenders worldwide.
Land, territory, and natural resources are central to ongoing conflicts, with ILEDs and their communities caught in the crosshairs.
- ALLIED defines ILEDs as individuals, organizations, or communities who promote and peacefully defend human rights in connection with territories, natural resources, livelihoods, and climate.
In 2022, Global Witness documented 177 deaths of land and environmental defenders across 18 countries.
Violence against ILEDs is significantly underreported due to:
- Political pressure.
- Rural locations far from media attention.
- Weak rule of law.
- High levels of impunity.
- Fear of retaliation.
Low documented attacks in some countries do not mean violence is nonexistent, but rather that it's not being captured or is inaccessible.

ALLIED Dataset Analysis

ALLIED's new global dataset sheds light on the scale and prevalence of violence against defenders.
In 2022, ALLIED recorded 916 non-lethal attacks across 46 countries.
ALLIED tracked cases over time, noting repeated attacks against defenders and communities, sometimes escalating to killings.
The majority of attacks targeted individuals (64%), while 30% were against entire communities.
Threats were the most common type of attack (33.6%), followed by arbitrary detention (10.2%).
Indigenous Peoples are disproportionately represented in the violence:
- 24.2% of total attacks documented by ALLIED in 2022 were against Indigenous Peoples.
- Indigenous Peoples represent an estimated 6% of the global population.
Attacks on Garifuna and Afro-Colombian defenders represented an additional 4.3% of the global total.
Defenders protecting land and territory accounted for 64.8% of all global attacks.
The private sector plays a decisive role in the perpetration of violence.
Defenders speaking out against harms caused by agriculture (palm and sugar plantations) and mining were most at risk:
- Agriculture: 46.5% of attacks.
- Mining: 17.9% of attacks.
Police were the most often named as the probable perpetrators of violence across the 46 countries (17.3% of all attacks), outside of Colombia where paramilitary forces were most commonly cited.
Systematic violence against ILEDs continued across Latin America in 2022:
- Colombia, Guatemala, and Mexico combined accounted for 75% of all global attacks.
Escalations and cyclical attacks against defenders and their communities were observed between 2020 and 2022.
At least six defenders who endured non-lethal attacks documented in the ALLIED database have since been killed.
Risk factors enabling escalating violence include:
- Weak rule of law.
- Undefined land or territorial rights.
- Presence of private business and infrastructure developments.
- Conflicts with landowners and local authorities.
The ALLIED database provides crucial information, highlighting that non-lethal attacks are urgent alarms and represent a crucial window for intervention and protection.
ALLIED aims to use the data to generate more evidence and recommendations for effective policies and protection mechanisms.
ALLIED works collaboratively with local data collectors and protection organizations to document non-lethal attacks.
77% of all attacks in the database were verified through direct engagement with the targeted LED.
The ALLIED dataset included data from 13 datasets from 12 organizations.

Global Analysis

Latin America had the most documented violence in 2022.
Colombia, Guatemala, and Mexico led in high rates of violence.
The most common type of attack was threats (33.6%).
Arbitrary detention was the second-most recorded attack (10.2%).
Death threats accounted for 9.4% of all non-lethal attacks, while beatings or physical injury accounted for 8.2% and displacement for another 7.2%.
Community leaders or members were the largest share of those attacked (40.5%).
Indigenous Peoples accounted for 24.2% of attacks, despite being approximately 6% of the global population.
Violence against Indigenous Peoples was documented in only 14 of the total 46 countries, indicating especially high levels of violence against Indigenous Peoples in the countries where attacks were documented.
Defenders protecting land accounted for 39.8% of the total, territory for 25%, and the environment in general for 16.7%.
Defenders attacked in connection with forest protection contributed to more than 15% of attacks in Burma, Indonesia and Madagascar.
Agriculture and mining sectors were linked to 46.5% and 17.9% of attacks, respectively.
Oil and gas accounted for 8.2% of global attacks and 46% of all attacks registered in Uganda, linked to the EACOP pipeline.
Paramilitary forces were named in 26% of global attacks where data was available, all violence linked to paramilitary forces was documented in Colombia, where they were listed as the primary or secondary probable perpetrator in 714 attacks in 2022.
Outside of Colombia, police were most commonly listed as the probable perpetrator.

Country-Level Data

Colombia had the most documented violence (506 registered attacks).
- Threats accounted for 54% of attacks in Colombia, with death threats contributing another 12%.
- 83% of all attacks targeted those defending land and territory.
- The agricultural sector was linked to 76% of cases where data was available.
- Paramilitary forces were linked to 46.4% of attacks in Colombia.
Guatemala registered 110 attacks.
- Beatings or physical injury was the most documented type of attack (17%).
- Judicial harassment was the second most common (14.5%).
- Indigenous People in Guatemala accounted for a significantly higher proportion of all attacks, at 53% of the total.
- Agriculture and mining combined were linked to more than 90% of the attacks.
- Police were the most common probable perpetrator (38%).
Russia: The war against Ukraine led to the displacement and detention of vocal opponents, including protestors and dissidents that advocated for the protection of Indigenous territories.
- One in every four attacks was registered as a displacement, all of the documented attacks implicated police, the judiciary and local government officials.
Tanzania: Violence escalated as the Massai people faced restrictions, displacements and the threat of forced evictions.
- Threats represented 27.3% of the attacks.
- Community leaders and members accounted for 50% of the attacks, while another 32.1% were registered as violence against Indigenous Peoples.
- Police were named in 25% of the attacks.
Uganda: Protesters faced harsh retaliation opposing the construction of the East African Crude Oil Pipeline (EACOP).
- Arbitrary detainments accounted for nearly 60% of all attacks in Uganda.
- 72% of attacks in Uganda were perpetrated against community leads and members.
- The Stop EACOP Campaign was named in 85% of the cases.
- transnational corporations and international financial institutions (IFIs) were named in another 30.5% of cases, combined.
India: Violent clashes between protestors opposing the construction of the JSW Utkal Steel Plant and the police continued throughout the year.
- Arbitrary detention accounted for the largest share in 2022, at 37.9%.
- judicial harassment accounted for another 34.5% and intimidation for another 13.8%.
- Police were implicated as the probable perpetrator in 42.3% of the attacks.

Escalations and Cyclical Violence

Six defenders documented in the ALLIED dataset for having endured non-lethal attacks have since been recorded as killings.

Individual Cases

Abelardo Quej Ixim: Killed on December 6, 2020, after receiving a death threat. Harassment against his community spanned back to 2005.
- Factors contributing to his risk: Indigenous identity, hydroelectric projects in the vicinity, disputes with a private landowner, and government inaction.
Teófilo Acuña Ribón: Killed on February 22, 2022, after enduring at least three non-lethal attacks spanning back to 2007.
- Factors contributing to his risk: Peasant identity, member of an agrarian movement, opposition to extractive mining operations, and government inaction.
José Albeiro Camayo Gūetio: Killed on January 24, 2022, after enduring at least seven documented attacks stretching back to 2014.
- Factors contributing to his risk: Indigenous identity, defending land from illicit crop cultivation, member of the Indigenous Guard, speaking out against mining extraction, deforestation and illegal recruitment, and government inaction.

Collective Cases

The Tumandok: An Indigenous group living in the mountains of Panay Island in the Philippines, entangled in land conflict related to the Jalaur River Multipurpose Project (JRMP).
- Factors contributing to the ongoing violence: Indigenous identity, presence of a hydroelectric project, common practice of red tagging and ongoing disputes involving local authorities and ineffective protection or action from government or other authorities.

Conclusions

The first global analysis of non-lethal attacks reveals a troubling pattern of attacks targeting those who are defending land, territory, Indigenous Peoples rights and the environment more broadly.
The systematic nature of these attacks, often collective and cyclical, are frequently driven by economic interests.
These cases highlight the failure of current protection mechanisms and inaction by government and other authorities.

Recommendations

States must develop and sustain mechanisms that collect and report data on attacks against Indigenous, land and environmental defenders, using this information to inform more effective policies and protection mechanisms to reduce attacks on these defenders and their communities.
Legal protections and protection mechanisms must be strengthened and governments must work with defenders and communities to build effective protection programs that can provide tailored individual and collective protection strategies.
States should develop and support national human rights institutes (NHRIs) that adhere to the Paris Principles, promoting their role as independent, authoritative monitoring bodies engaged in data collection with the support of state bodies, as outlined in the Marrakesh Declaration.
In all relevant international frameworks, including IN AGENDA 2030 BUT ALSO IN THE GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY FRAMEWORK (GBF), STATES SHOULD COMMIT TO REPORTING DATA ON VIOLENCE perpetrated against defenders, making especially vulnerable groups visible.
States and reporting agencies must recognise and protect the important role played by local data collectors, engaging them through official reporting mechanisms and supporting their sustained role as advisors in these processes.
THE INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY, INCLUDING MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS, SHOULD FULLY TAKE ACCOUNT OF AVAILABLE DATA ON ATTACKS against these defenders and their communities, providing support and solidarity but also as a consideration when providing development aid and evaluating its impact.
CORPORATIONS SHOULD BE HELD ACCOUNTABLE FOR VIOLENCE associated with their operations, particularly in areas and sectors that are prone to land conflict. Due diligence and transparency processes must be enforced, ensuring businesses respect human rights across their supply chains.