Period 8 Reading Guide Notes (Ch. 26-29)

Key Concept 8.1: US Global Leadership in an Uncertain Postwar World

  • The United States aimed to maintain global leadership amid an uncertain postwar environment, leading to domestic and international consequences.

I. Cold War Engagement with the Soviet Union

  • Containment Policy: The U.S. engaged in a Cold War with the Soviet Union, seeking to limit communist expansion and promote a free-market global economy.
  • Soviet Takeover of Eastern Europe: The U.S. was alarmed by the Soviet Union's control of Eastern Europe, where communist dictatorships were established.
  • Division of Germany: The Soviet-controlled section of Germany became a communist state, exacerbating tensions.
  • Iron Curtain: The term "Iron Curtain" described the Soviet satellite states in Eastern Europe.
  • Truman Doctrine: This policy was a response to communist-led uprisings in Greece and Soviet demands for control of Turkish waterways. The U.S. provided assistance to Greece and Turkey to counter communist influence.
  • Marshall Plan: The Marshall Plan aimed to help Western Europe achieve economic self-sufficiency. The Soviets refused to participate, further increasing tensions.
  • Berlin Airlift: The Soviet blockade of West Berlin led to the Berlin Airlift, where U.S. planes flew in supplies to West Berlin. This event led to the formal creation of West and East Germany.
  • Warsaw Pact: This was a military alliance formed by communist states in Eastern Europe as a counterpart to NATO.
  • NATO: In 1949, the U.S. joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a military alliance that effectively checked Soviet expansion in Europe.
  • National Security Act: This act centralized the Department of Defense and created the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).
  • Arms Race: The U.S. and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race to develop superior weapons systems.
  • Korean War: Japan surrendered its claims to Korea, leading to a conflict between the U.S.-supported South Korea and the communist North Korea.
  • Domino Theory: The domino theory posited that if South Vietnam fell to communism, other nations in Southeast Asia would follow.
  • Eisenhower Doctrine: This doctrine provided U.S. economic and military aid to Middle Eastern nations threatened by communism.
  • NASA: In 1958, the U.S. created NASA to advance missile technology and explore outer space.
  • Cuban Revolution: Castro established a communist totalitarian state in Cuba after seizing power.
  • Bay of Pigs Invasion: The failed Bay of Pigs invasion led Castro to seek increased aid from the Soviet Union.
  • Berlin Wall: The Soviets built the Berlin Wall to prevent migration from East to West Germany.
  • Cuban Missile Crisis: This crisis brought the world close to nuclear war and resulted in the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
  • Kennedy's Response: Kennedy increased spending on non-nuclear arms and mobile military forces.
  • Nixon's China Visit: Nixon's visit to China led to U.S. recognition of the communist government in 1979. This relationship was used to pressure the Soviet Union into a treaty limiting missiles, which significantly reduced Cold War tensions.

II. Domestic Debates over Cold War Policies

  • Communist Takeover in China: Communists, led by Mao Zedong, gained power in China by appealing to the poor and landless. Republicans blamed Democrats for the "loss" of China.
  • Korean War Conflicts: The Korean War further fueled conflict between political parties over expanding the war.
  • Second Red Scare: Public fear of communist infiltration led to the belief that communist spies had infiltrated American society.
  • Loyalty Review Board: The Loyalty Review Board investigated the backgrounds of federal employees to identify potential security risks.
  • Smith Act and McCarran Internal Security Act: These acts reflected the Second Red Scare and were used to suppress suspected subversives.
  • Civil Liberties Concerns: Methods used to identify communists raised concerns about government violations of civil liberties.
  • McCarthyism: Senator Joseph McCarthy gained political power by exploiting anti-communist hysteria.
  • CIA Operations: CIA operations fueled anti-American sentiment in Latin America and damaged U.S.-Iran relations.
  • Nixon Doctrine: The Nixon Doctrine stated that Asian allies would receive U.S. support without extensive use of U.S. ground forces.
  • Invasion of Cambodia: In 1970, Nixon used U.S. forces to invade Cambodia, sparking nationwide protests on college campuses, leading to violence against protestors.
  • My Lai Massacre: The U.S. public learned about the 1968 My Lai Massacre, where U.S. troops killed women and children.
  • Economic Strains: The economy in the 1970s faced an economic slowdown and high inflation.

Key Concept 8.2: Civil Rights Movements and Liberalism

  • New movements for civil rights and liberal efforts to expand the role of government generated a range of political and cultural responses.

I. Civil Rights Movement and Successes

  • Truman's Desegregation of the Military: In 1948, Truman desegregated the military.
  • Brown v. Board of Education: The Supreme Court ruled that segregation of schools was unconstitutional because it violated the 14th Amendment, overturning the Plessy v. Ferguson case.
  • Southern Resistance: Southern states resisted the Brown v. Board of Education decision by establishing private schools, closing public schools, and increasing violence against Black people.
  • Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott: Rosa Park’s arrest sparked a boycott of city buses.
  • Martin Luther King Jr.: Martin Luther King Jr. emerged as a leader of nonviolent protests.
  • Civil Rights Laws (1957 & 1960): These laws gave the Justice Department power to protect the voting rights of Black people.
  • Sit-Ins: African Americans used sit-in techniques to integrate restaurants, hotels, buildings, libraries, pools, and transportation in the South.
  • Civil Rights Act of 1964: This act made segregation illegal in all public facilities and granted the federal government powers to enforce school desegregation.
  • "Letter From Birmingham Jail": Martin Luther King Jr.'s "Letter From Birmingham Jail" inspired Kennedy to support a stronger civil rights bill.
  • March on Washington: The March on Washington was the largest and most successful demonstration in U.S. history, advocating for Kennedy’s civil rights bill.
  • March to Montgomery: The voting rights march to Montgomery was met with violence, becoming known as "Bloody Sunday." Media coverage led Johnson to offer federal protection.
  • Black Nationalism: Elijah Muhammad preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement.
  • Malcolm X: Malcolm X led Black Muslims and advocated for self-defense. He inspired the SNCC to advocate for "black power" and separatism (Black Panthers).

II. Identity, Social Justice, and Environmental Movements

  • Immigration Reform: Congress dropped bans on Chinese and other Asian immigration and eliminated race as a barrier to naturalization. Mexican immigrants faced restrictions and discrimination.
  • "Beautify America" Project: Lady Bird Johnson promoted the "Beautify America" project.
  • Equal Employment Opportunity Commission: This commission aimed to end discrimination in employment based on race, religion, sex, or national origin.
  • Voting Rights Act of 1965: The Voting Rights Act ended literacy tests and provided federal registrars.
  • Title IX: Title IX aimed to end sex discrimination in schools receiving federal funding by ensuring equal athletic opportunities for girls.

III. Liberalism and Its Discontents

  • Eisenhower's Modern Republicanism: Eisenhower aimed to balance the government budget, created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW), extended social security, opposed federal health care insurance and aid to education
  • Warren Court: The Warren Court ruled that states could not prohibit the use of contraceptives, upheld the separation of church and state, and protected radical and revolutionary speech.
  • Students for a Democratic Society (SDS): The SDS led student antiwar protests and represented the New Left.
  • Counterculture: The counterculture was characterized by music, increased drug use, alternative clothing styles, and democratic ideas.
  • Women's Rights Movement: The women’s rights movement achieved changes in attitudes and hiring practices.

Key Concept 8.3: Postwar Economic, Demographic, and Technological Changes

  • Postwar economic, demographic, and technological changes had a far-reaching impact on American society, politics, and the environment.

I. Postwar Optimism

  • High Standard of Living: The U.S. experienced its highest standard of living after the war.

  • GI Bill of Rights: The GI Bill of Rights provided education to veterans, stimulating a postwar boom in higher education.

  • Federal Government Expansion: The federal government stimulated postwar economic expansion.

  • Baby Boom: The baby boom focused women's attention on raising children and homemaking, although more women also entered the workforce.

  • Suburban Growth: The growth of suburbs led to increased poverty and racial division in cities.

  • End of Racial Discrimination: In 1948, Truman ordered the end of racial discrimination in the federal government and armed forces.

  • 22nd Amendment: The 22nd Amendment limited the president to two terms.

  • Taft-Hartley Act: The Taft-Hartley Act aimed to check the growing power of unions.

  • Truman's Fair Deal: Truman's Fair Deal bills were defeated due to conflicts with Congress and concerns about the Cold War.

  • Highway Act of 1956: The Highway Act of 1956 justified new taxes to improve defense and fostered a homogenous national culture.

II. Cultural Debates and Divisions

  • Loss of Government Credibility: Doubts about the Warren Commission and Kennedy’s death resulted in a loss of credibility of the government.
  • Vietnam War Credibility Gap: Johnson’s legislative achievements helped reduce poverty, but the escalation of the Vietnam War and misinformation created a credibility gap.