Central Asian Contacts and Their Results

Introduction

The period around 200 B.C. in India is marked by significant interaction with Central Asia, despite the absence of a large empire like the Mauryas.
The Mauryas were succeeded by native rulers (Sungas, Kanvas, Satavahanas) in eastern/central India and the Deccan, while Central Asian dynasties rose in the northwest.

The Indo-Greeks

Around 200 B.C., invasions from Central Asia began, with the Greeks from Bactria (south of the Oxus River, in north Afghanistan) being the first to cross the Hindukush.
Multiple waves of invaders came, sometimes ruling concurrently in different regions.
The weakening of the Selucid empire in Bactria and Parthia (Iran) was a major cause of these invasions.
Scythian pressure on the Greeks and Parthians increased after the construction of the Chinese Wall prevented Scythian expansion into China.
Pushed by the Scythians, the Bactrian Greeks invaded India.
The successors of Asoka were too weak to stop these foreign invasions.
The Indo-Greeks (or Bactrian Greeks) were the first to invade India.
They occupied a large part of northwestern India, exceeding Alexander's conquests.
They may have advanced as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.
The Indo-Greeks did not establish a unified rule, with two Greek dynasties ruling in parallel.
Menander (Milinda, 165-145 B.C.) was the most famous Indo-Greek ruler.
- His capital was Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Panjab.
- He invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
- He converted to Buddhism under Nagasena (Nagarjuna).
- The dialogues between Menander and Nagasena are recorded in the book Milinda Panho (The Questions of Milinda).
The Indo-Greek rule is notable for their coinage.
- They were the first in India to issue coins definitively attributable to specific kings.
- Earlier punch-marked coins cannot be definitively linked to a dynasty.
- They introduced gold coins to India, which became more common under the Kushans.
Greek rule introduced Hellenistic art, leading to Gandhara art in the northwest frontier of India.

The Sakas

The Sakas followed the Greeks and controlled a larger portion of India.
They had five branches with power centers in different areas of India and Afghanistan:
- Afghanistan
- Panjab (capital: Taxila)
- Mathura (ruled for about two centuries)
- Western India (ruled until the fourth century A.D.)
- Upper Deccan
The Sakas did not face strong resistance.
In 58 B.C., a king of Ujjain fought and drove out the Sakas, taking the title Vikramaditya, which marked the beginning of the Vikrama Samvat era.
- Vikramaditya became a popular title, like Caesar for Roman emperors.
- There are about 14 Vikramadityas in Indian history.
- The title was especially common in western India and the western Deccan until the twelfth century A.D.
Only the Sakas in western India maintained power for a significant time (about four centuries).
Rudradaman I (A.D. 130-150) was the most famous Saka ruler in India.
- He ruled Sindh, Kutch, and Gujarat and recovered Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa, and Kathiawar from the Satavahanas.
- He is known for repairing the Sudarsana lake in Kathiawar, which had been used for irrigation since Mauryan times.
Rudradaman was a Sanskrit enthusiast and issued the first long inscription in pure Sanskrit, while earlier inscriptions were in Prakrit.

The Parthians

The Parthians followed the Sakas in northwestern India.
Ancient Indian texts often mention the Sakas and Parthians together as Saka-Pahlavas.
They originated in Iran and ruled a smaller portion of northwestern India compared to the Greeks and Sakas.
Gondophernes was the most famous Parthian king, during whose reign St. Thomas is said to have arrived in India to spread Christianity.
Like the Sakas, the Parthians integrated into Indian society and polity.

The Kushans

The Kushans followed the Parthians; they were also known as Yuechis or Tocharians.
The Kushans were one of five clans of the Yuechi tribe, nomadic people from north-central Asia near China.
They initially occupied Bactria (north Afghanistan), displacing the Sakas.
They then moved to the Kabul valley, seized Gandhara by crossing the Hindukush, and replaced the Greeks and Parthians.
They established authority over the lower Indus basin and much of the Gangetic basin.
Their empire stretched from the Oxus to the Ganga and from Khorasan to Varanasi, encompassing parts of the USSR, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and northern India.
This created a unique opportunity to mix peoples and cultures, leading to a new type of culture across five modern countries.
There were two successive Kushan dynasties.
- The first was founded by the Kadphises chiefs, who ruled for 28 years from around A.D. 50.
  - Kadphises I issued coins south of the Hindukush, imitating Roman copper coins.
  - Kadphises II issued many gold coins and expanded the kingdom east of the Indus.
- The house of Kadphises was succeeded by Kanishka.
  - Their kings extended Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin.
  - Early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with higher gold content than Gupta coins.
  - Kushan coins are mainly found west of the Indus, but their inscriptions are found in northwestern India, Sindh, Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi, and Varanasi, showing their authority in the Gangetic basin.
  - Mathura was their second capital in India, after Purushapura (Peshawar), where Kanishka built a monastery and stupa.
Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler.
- He may have been defeated by the Chinese but is known for:
  - Starting the Saka era in A.D. 78, which is used by the Government of India.
  - Patronizing Buddhism and holding a Buddhist council in Kashmir to finalize Mahayana doctrines.
  - Being a patron of art and Sanskrit literature.
Kanishka's successors continued to rule in northwestern India until about A.D. 230, some bearing Indian names like Vasudeva.
The Sassanian power, arising in Iran, supplanted the Kushan empire in Afghanistan and areas west of the Indus in the mid-third century A.D.
However, Kushan principalities persisted in India for about a century, particularly in the Kabul valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezm, and Sogdiana.
Kushan coins, inscriptions, and terracottas have been found in these areas, including a large Kushan palace with administrative archives in Toprak-Kala (Khorezm).

Impact of Central Asian Contacts

Structures and Pottery

The Saka-Kushan period saw significant advancements in building activities.
- Excavations have revealed multiple layers of structures at various sites in northern India.
- Burnt bricks were used for flooring, and tiles for both flooring and roofing.
- The use of surkhi and tiles may not have originated from outside India.
- Brick-wells were constructed during this period.
Typical pottery included red ware, both plain and polished, with medium to fine fabric.
- Sprinklers and spouted channels were distinctive pots.
- This pottery resembles red pottery found in Kushan layers in Soviet Central Asia, where these techniques were widely known.

Trade and Technology

The Sakas and Kushans enriched Indian culture with new elements.
- They integrated into Indian culture, adopting its script, language, and religion.
- They became part of Indian society as a warrior class (Kshatriyas).
They introduced better cavalry and widespread use of the riding horse, including the use of reins and saddles (seen in Buddhist sculptures).
The Sakas and Kushans were excellent horsemen, as demonstrated by equestrian terracotta figures.
- Some horsemen were heavily armored and fought with spears and lances.
- They may have used rope toe stirrups.
They introduced turbans, tunics, trousers, and heavy long coats (sherwani).
Central Asians also brought caps, helmets, and boots, which were used by warriors.
These advantages helped them conquer Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India.
Eventually, this military technology spread within India and was used against the former conquerors.
The arrival of foreigners led to closer ties between Central Asia and India.
India received gold from the Altai Mountains in Central Asia and possibly through trade with the Roman Empire.
The Kushans controlled the Silk Route, which generated significant income through tolls levied on traders.
- The Silk Route stretched from China through Central Asia and Afghanistan to Iran and Western Asia (part of the Roman Empire).
The Kushans were the first rulers in India to issue gold coins on a large scale.

Polity

The Central Asian conquerors imposed their rule on numerous petty native princes, leading to a feudatory organization.
The Kushans used the title "king of kings," indicating their supremacy over smaller princes.
The Sakas and Kushans reinforced the concept of the divine origin of kingship.
- Kushan kings were called "sons of god," adopted from the Chinese title "son of heaven."
- Manu, a Hindu lawgiver, stated that kings should be respected as great gods in human form, even if they are children.
They introduced the satrap system of government, dividing the empire into satrapies ruled by satraps.
Unusual practices, such as hereditary dual rule (two kings ruling simultaneously), were introduced.
There appears to have been less centralization under these rulers.
The Greeks introduced the practice of military governorship, appointing governors called strategos.
- Military governors were needed to maintain control over conquered populations.

New Elements in Indian Society

The Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, and Kushans eventually lost their distinct identities and became Indianized.
As conquerors, they were absorbed into Indian society as a warrior class (Kshatriyas).
Manu stated that the Sakas and Parthians were Kshatriyas who had fallen from their duties, effectively classifying them as second-class Kshatriyas.
Post-Mauryan times saw unprecedented assimilation of foreigners into Indian society.

Religion

Some foreign rulers converted to Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu).
- The Greek ambassador Heliodorus erected a pillar in honor of Vishnu near Vidisa.
Other rulers adopted Buddhism.
- The Greek ruler Menander converted to Buddhism.
- The dialogues between Menander and Nagasena are a valuable source for the cultural history of the post-Mauryan period.
Kushan rulers worshipped both Siva and the Buddha, and their images appeared on Kushan coins.
Several Kushan rulers, including Vasudeva (whose name is a synonym for Krishna), were worshippers of Vishnu.

The Origin of Mahayana Buddhism

Contact with foreigners influenced changes in Indian religions, especially Buddhism.
Original Buddhism was too puritanical and abstract for foreigners, who desired something more concrete and understandable.
They did not appreciate Buddhist philosophical doctrines and wanted something that could satisfy their religious cravings.
Mahayana (the Great Wheel) Buddhism developed, in which the image of the Buddha began to be worshipped.
- Mahayana was open to all people.
- Those who did not subscribe to Mahayana were known as followers of Hinayana (the Small Wheel).
Kanishka became a major patron of Mahayana Buddhism.
- He convened a council in Kashmir where Buddhist teachings were engraved on copper sheets and deposited under a stupa.
- The contents of these inscriptions are unknown because the stupa has not been discovered.
- Kanishka built many stupas in memory of the Buddha.

Gandhara Art

Foreign princes enthusiastically patronized Indian art and literature.
The Kushan empire brought together artisans trained in various schools and countries.
Indian craftsmen interacted with the Greeks and Romans, especially in the Gandhara region.
This interaction led to a new form of art where images of the Buddha were made in the Graeco-Roman style.
- The Buddha's hair was styled in the Graeco-Roman manner.
The influence of Gandhara art spread to Mathura, although it was primarily a center of indigenous art.
Mathura produced beautiful images of the Buddha and is famous for the headless erect statue of Kanishka with his name inscribed on it.
Mathura also produced stone images of Vardhamana Mahavira.
The Mathura school of art flourished in the early centuries of the Christian era, and its red sandstone products are found even outside Mathura.

Literature and Learning

Foreign princes patronized Sanskrit literature.
The earliest example of kavya style is found in Rudradaman's inscription in Kathiawar (c. A.D. 150).
Inscriptions began to be composed in pure Sanskrit, although Prakrit continued to be used.
Great writers like Asvaghosha were patronized by the Kushans.
- Asvaghosha wrote the Buddhacharita (a biography of the Buddha) and the Saundarananda (an example of Sanskrit kavya).
The progress of Mahayana Buddhism led to the composition of numerous avadanas, mostly written in Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit to preach Mahayana teachings.
- Important books of this genre include the Mahavastu and the Divyavadana.
Foreigners contributed to the development of Indian theatre by introducing the use of the curtain (yavanika), borrowed from the Greeks.
- The term yavanika comes from yavana, a Sanskrit word for Ionian (a branch of the Greeks).
- Later, yavana was used for all kinds of foreigners.

Science and Technology

Indian astronomy and astrology were influenced by contact with the Greeks.
Many Greek terms related to the movement of planets appear in Sanskrit texts.
Indian astrology was influenced by Greek ideas, with the term horasastra (astrology) derived from the Greek word "horoscope."
However, the Indians did not owe much to the Greeks in medicine, botany, and chemistry.
Charaka and Susruta dealt with these subjects extensively.
The Charakasamhita lists numerous plants and herbs used to prepare drugs, indicating advanced knowledge of chemistry.
Ancient Indian physicians primarily relied on plants (oshadhi) for curing ailments, and medicine itself came to be known as aushadhi.
In technology, the Indians seem to have benefited from contact with Central Asians.
- Kanishka is depicted wearing trousers and long boots.
- Leather shoe-making may have begun in India during this period.
Kushan copper coins imitated Roman coins, and Kushan gold coins imitated Roman gold coins.
Embassies were exchanged between Indian and Roman kings.
- Embassies were sent from India to the court of Emperor Augustus (A.D. 27-28) and Emperor Trajan (A.D. 110-20).
Contacts with Rome may have introduced new practices in technology.
Glass-making in India saw significant progress during this period due to foreign influence.