Chapter 2: Nazi Germany
What caused the German people to sway towards more extreme political parties?
Political and Economic Instability
Governments who had taken over after WW1 had failed to deliver peace and economic recovery
The democratic system was weakened by the many competing parties that spent more time undermining one another than solving their countries’ problems
The government were ineffective when faced with economic crises that caused a failing economy, rising inflation and unemployment
As a result, the German people felt let down by the government, grew increasingly frustrated and lost hope in the present government and turned towards more extreme parties with the hope that they are able to improve the situation
Appeal of Alternative Ideologies and Strong Groups
Strong personalities like Adolf Hitler emerged in the midst of these unstable times
They criticized democracy for being ineffective and promise to solve the present political and economic challenges
As they had experienced weak and ineffective leadership under democracy, the German people preferred the decisiveness of these new leaders.
Fear of Communism
The rise of USSR and communism posed a threat to the way of life of the German people
The communist system was in direct opposition to their democratic political systems and capitalist economies
Elites and business owners in the Western European democracies were concerned that communist ideas would spread to their countries and stir up unrests and revolutions
If a communist state was established, these elites and business owners would lose their assets and properties
Thus, due to these fears, they turned to and supported more extreme parties who promised to stand against communism
Nationalism
Authoritarian leaders used nationalistic rhetoric to stir the people the unite under their country’s perceived superiority over others
In Germany, such nationalistic ideas gained popularity in response to the economic crises of the 1930s
This fervor of nationalistic pride rallied the people to support such extreme parties
What contributed to the weakness of the Weimar Republic?
Political Challenges
The Weimar Constitution
One change to the constitution was the policy of proportional representation where any party taking part in the elections would gain seats in the Reichstag equal to the number of votes it received
This was to allow for most views and interests to be represented in the Reichstag
However, due to this system, it became hard for any one party to gain a majority which led to governments being formed as coalition
This could be seen in the 1919 election where Ebert’s SPD was the largest party but did not have enough Assembly members to form a government on his own
Thus, a coalition government was formed with the Catholic Centre Party and the German Democratic Party
This would result in a weak government as different parties in the coalition would be fighting for their parties’ own agenda and near to impossible for the government to pass laws / execute policies effectively
An Unpopular Republic
President Ebert’s government faced several challenges that will affect his government’s ability to introduce new measures and reforms for the country
The people assumed that the German army had ended the war undefeated and were expecting a negotiated treaty where they were treated as equals
However, when the Weimar government announced the Treaty of Versailles, the people were shocked and angry
They saw the treaty as a diktat (dictated peace) forced upon the Germans
They also saw the Weimar government as the ones to be blamed for the treaty, where the German army had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the Weimar government.
This government was also known as the ‘November Criminals’ for having sold out the country
Due to this unpopularity, the people did not support the Weimar government and turned towards more extremist ideas and voices
Threats to the Republic
The Weimar government also faced threats from both the left-wing and right-wing groups which threatened to overthrow the government
One such attempt was the Spartacist Uprising in 1919
They were a left-wing group (communist) which wanted to rule Germany by soviets
The Spartacist was joined by rebel soldiers and sailors who set up soviets in many towns
However, there were other soldiers who fought against the Spartacist – one such group was the Freikorps, an anti-communist band of WW1 veterans
Ebert made an agreement with the commanders of the army and the Freikorps to put down the rebellion
There were bitter street fighting and heavy casualties
Another rebellion that broke out came from the right-wing
Many of them were former soldiers, including the Freikorps
They were led by Wolfgang Kapp who mobilized 5000 Freikorps and marched into Berlin in a rebellion known as the Kapp Putsch
He planned to overthrow the Weimar Republic and return Germany to a more authoritarian system similar to the Kaiser
The Weimar government was supported by Germany’s trade unions and their 12 million industrial workers who declared a general strike 🡪 which brought the country to a standstill with no transport, power or water
All civil servants and government officials also supported the Weimar government and refused to cooperate with Kapp
Thus, the Kapp Putsch failed
All these uprisings and military challenges weakened the Weimar’s government ability to establish law and order / security in the country as well as impede their ability to move the country towards recovery after WW1
Economic Challenges
Occupation of Ruhr and Hyperinflation
When Germany failed to make a payment for the reparations, the French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr valley to take what was owed to them in the form of raw materials and goods
In response, the German government ordered the workers to go on strike and not co-operate with the French
This sudden halt in industrial production caused the German currency to collapse
The problem was made worse when the government continued to print more money which caused the value of currency to decrease
This flood of money led to hyperinflation which meant that the prices of daily goods rose rapidly
Hyperinflation caused hardship for the Germans 🡪 especially for the middle-class whose personal savings were wiped out and unemployment was widespread
As a result, the Weimar government lost support from the middle-class Germans who felt that the government was unable to manage the country’s economy
How did the Nazi party rise to power?
Appeal of Hitler
Hitler was an excellent speaker and began to build up a personal following
Hitler was a confident speaker who prepared his speeches and good at gauging the mood of the audience
He also appeared sincere to them who was able to empathize with their conditions
Thousands turned up to hear Hitler speak at Nazi meetings and were impressed by his energy and commitment
He was able to appear as a man of the people – someone who understood the people and their problems
Hitler promised to sweep all the problems of divisions in the government away and unite the nation together
Hitler’s promises which included ending the ineffective coalition governments, restoring the glory days of the Kaiser and authoritarian rule, return to traditional German values and fight the threat of communism in elections, in the Reichstag and on the streets
All these promises appealed to the German people as they address all their fears
He managed to win over many important business owners and industrialists who agreed with his anti-communist and anti-trade union views
They contributed generously to the Nazi party’s finances which was used to effectively market the party through different propaganda channels
Hitler also conducted many political rallies all over Germany – eg. the Nuremberg Rallies
Hitler also created a network of local Nazi parties to improve the popularity of the party all over the country
With increased funding for publicity and political rallies, this made the Nazi party known and popular to the German population. This proved successful as the Nazi party managed to win 32 seats in the 1924 elections
Having overthrew Drexler, Hitler became the leader of the Nazi party
Hitler developed the SA (Sturmabteilung / Brown Shirts) and put Hermann Goering in charge of them
Hitler turned the SA into a private army complete with uniforms and a command structure which gave the impression of discipline and order which was much needed in the country
This was in contrast to the communist gangs who were constantly fighting against the police and the unemployed workers creating chaos
The SA would fend off the Nazi rivals on the streets, against the communists and also inside the party
Thus, people’s image of the Nazi party improved as the people looked up to the orderly and disciplined SA and SS and saw them as being able to maintain law and order as well as bring stability to the country
The Nazi propaganda also contributed to the rise in popularity of the Nazi party
Led by Joseph Goebbels, leaflets, newspapers and radio broadcasts blamed the economic problems on the Treaty of Versailles (especially the clause on reparations)
The Weimar politicians were portrayed as selfish and incapable
In contrast, the Nazi party promised strong and decisive actions to solve Germany’s problems
Nazi propaganda also offered culprits, namely the Jews, to blame for the problems
Therefore, all these changed the impression of the people on the Nazi party vis-à-vis the present government in being able to take concrete action to solve Germany’s problems
Impact of the Great Depression
Unemployment
The Great Depression caused the closure of businesses which resulted in workers being laid off and unemployment skyrocketing
Almost everyone was affected 🡪 industrial workers, farmers and middle classes
As a result, this led to hunger and illness
Many Germans were evicted from their homes as they could not pay their rent
As a result, makeshift shelters and slums appear in most cities
When every part of German society is pushed to such dire situation, people would be desperate for any party that promises hope 🡪 which was what the Nazi party did
Failure of Democracy
When the Great Depression struck, SPD wanted to increase welfare for the unemployed but this was opposed by the coalition partners
Resulted in the collapse of the coalition
President Hindenburg had to use his power under Article 48 to appoint a new Chancellor, Heinrich Bruning
Bruning wanted to cut government spending on welfare as well as the wages of civil servants but he could not get enough support in the Reichstag to pass them into law
He had to ask Hindenburg to use his emergency powers again
All these show that the Weimar Republic had failed as the parties were so divided that it was impossible to form a coalition government 🡪 which resulted in Hindenburg having to rule by decree using Article 48 where he decides who became Chancellor and passed new laws
This made people lose hope in the present Weimar government and more inclined to support more extreme parties 🡪 like the Nazi party
Rise in Communism
Weimar Republic was not managing the economic crisis
Political parties were divided and had their own agendas
Impossible to pass laws as they were unable to get a majority in parliament
Hindenburg was running the country and he supported Bruning’s harsh measures 🡪 which negatively impacted on millions of ordinary Germans
Bruning was often called ‘Hunger Chancellor’
Due to the ineffectiveness of the government in handling the crisis of the Great Depression, there were some workers who turned to the communists 🡪 which resulted in the growth of the communist (German Communist Party) in the Reichstag from 10 to 15 per cent
This caused the Business leaders and the middle class to fear a possible communist takeover of the government which would result in the introduction of state control over businesses, similar to what happened in USSR
Landowning farmers were also alarmed as they fear that their land would be taken over by the communists and they may be killed or imprisoned, similar to what happened in USSR
All these created a climate of fear as people lost trust in the Weimar Republic’s ability to deal with the communist threat
Thus, many of them started to turn to the Nazi party to take control of the situation and face the communists
How did the Nazi party consolidate their rule in the government?
The Reichstag Fire
In Feb 1933, the Reichstag building was burnt down
It was the work of a lone and mentally unstable communist named Marinus Lubbe
Hitler exploited it and declared that the fire was the beginning of a communist uprising
Persuaded Hindenburg to pass the Decree for the Protection of People and State
Effectively gave Hitler sweeping emergency powers
Police, SA and SS arrested 4000 communists on the night of the fire
Banned opposition party meetings, newspapers and radio broadcasts 🡪 which made it difficult for opposition parties to campaign for support
Resulted in the Nazis gaining 288 seats in the Reichstag
Nazi party gained the majority (52%) with support from 52 delegates of the German National People’s Party
The Enabling Act
Hitler wanted to change the Weimar Constitution but needed two-thirds majority
Wanted to introduce a new measure called the Enabling Act 🡪 which would allow hi to make and pass laws without consulting the Reichstag
Only the Communist party (SPD) voted against him but many of them were in prison
Many of the Reichstag members did not vote as they were injured or intimidated by the SA and SS
The Catholic Centre Party cooperated with the Nazis 🡪 thus, Hitler passed the Enabling Act
Hitler was effectively a dictator as he could just pass a law when he needed it; there was nothing President Hindenburg could do
Democracy in Germany has ended
Gleichschaltung (Co-ordination)
Hitler strengthened his power through the process of Gleichschaltung where all aspects of the state were brought under Nazi control
April 1933, Hitler passed a law which banned Jews from the civil service
It also became impossible to be promoted in the civil service if one did not belong to the Nazi party
All local councils and state assemblies had to have a Nazi majority 🡪 thus, over 400 locally elected council members and 70 locally elected mayors were forced out of their positions
By July 1933, Hitler passed a law banning all other political parties which resulted in Germany becoming a one-party state
Thus, this made the Nazi party presence essential in all operations of the civil service as well as the only official political party in Germany
The Night of Long Knives
Hitler began to see the SA, particularly its leader, Ernst Rohm, as a threat
The SA was made up of nearly 3 million men who were fiercely loyal to Rohm
They supported Rohm’s calls to tax elite groups such as the industrialists and landowners to help the unemployed 🡪 which was against Hitler’s interest as they (elite groups) were Hitler’s support group
The army commanders looked at the SA with disdain as they saw them as a disreputable force; they were also suspicious of Rohm as they were unsettled by his talk of making the SA into a second German army
In June 1934, Hitler accused Rohm of plotting to overthrow and murder him; thus, squads of SS men were sent to arrest Rohm and other leaders in the SA
This purge was known as the Night of the Long Knives – where Rohm and possibly as many as 400 others were executed
Many of the SA members were absorbed into the army and the SS
This allowed Hitler to consolidate control of the military arm (SS) under him as well as cleaned up the image of the Nazi private army
The Army and the Oath of Allegiance
When Hindenburg died in August 1934, Hitler took over and made himself as the Fuehrer (Supreme Leader) of Germany
The entire army were made to swear an oath of personal loyalty to Hitler as well as to stay out of politics and to serve him (instead of the country)
Hitler spent vast sums on rearmaments, introduced conscription and made plans to make Germany into a great military power again
This gave Hitler direct control over the entire German army and allowed him to coordinate the building up of German military forces
How did the Nazi government improve the economic situation in Germany?
Employment
Organised a huge programme of work creation – through embarking on public works projects like building a network of highways or autobahns, railways, house-building programmes and public building projects
The Reich Labour Service organized and sent men to work on such projects
Such programmes were financed through deficit financing 🡪 borrowing money from the public through loan bonds and promising to pay them back in the future
Thus, through stabiliz
ing German finances to fund the slew of public works, employment was created which boosted Germany’s economic recovery
Rearmament and shift to a War Economy
Hitler introduced conscription for the German army in 1935
Announced the 4-year plan to get the German economy ready for war
Policy of Autarky 🡪 priority to rearmament and achieve self-sufficiency in food and industrial production
Goering managed the economy through controlling aspects of labour, prices and raw materials as well as setting new production targets that the private industries had to match
Therefore, this measure brought about economic recovery as jobs were created through conscription and the need for workers in the industries producing military equipment
There were also opportunities for specialists and professionals particularly in the new world-class air force (Luftwaffe) that Hitler wanted to create
Also boosted Hitler’s popularity as the German national pride was renewed
Cooperation with Big Companies
Big companies benefitted most from Nazi rule as they no longer had to worry about negotiating with Trade Unions and worker strikes
Big companies thrived and made massive profits through their guaranteed production from government contracts (eg. Siemens, Mercedes and Volkswagen)
In return, the Nazi government ensured that the private companies supported the country in their move towards rearmament
As such, economic recovery was facilitated through efficient production lines that are not hampered with industrial actions like labour strikes as well as massive production orders that require a huge and regular workforce, thereby guaranteeing employment
Working Conditions
Hitler sought to win workers’ loyalty through various initiatives
Scheme like Strength Through Joy gave workers cheap theatre and cinema tickets, organized courses, trips and sports event, and even discounted cruises on luxury liners
Over 50 million Germans had been on such holidays
Another scheme was the Beauty of Labour movement which improves working conditions in factories
Introduced features in the workplace such as washing facilities and low cost canteens
State scheme called the ‘People’s Car’ was also introduced to help the people purchase the Volkwagen Beetle through a regular savings plan
Thus, through rewarding workers and looking after their welfare, the Nazi government ensured a contented and obedient workforce that would contribute wholeheartedly to rebuilding the German economy
How were the different groups of people in Germany discriminated against under the Nazi government?
Women
Hitler believed that German women would best serve their nation by fulfilling their roles as good mothers and spouses (conform to their traditional role as care-givers)
Women were excluded from politics and academics
Not allowed to vote in elections and were discouraged from pursuing university studies
Instead, women received vigorous training through the League of German Girls in domestic tasks
Employment opportunities for women were limited and discrimination against women job applicants was encouraged
Thus, women were discriminated against through their loss of political representation, pursuit of academic knowledge as well as employment in workplaces
Youths
The school system was tightly controlled by the Nazi government in terms of regulating teachers and the school curriculum
German youths were indoctrinated with Nazi ideology through new institutions like the Hitler Youth 🡪 which was a paramilitary organization formed to groom German youths to be future leaders in Nazi organisations
Organised a variety of activities such as camps, sports and physical training, backed by indoctrination in anti-Semitism and Nazi ideology
This discriminated against the youths as it controlled/distorted their thoughts and attitudes as well as formed their biasness/prejudices (against the Jews)
Minorities
Nazis believed in the superiority of the Aryan race and sought to improve it through a programme of euthanasia and sterillisation where the ‘others’ who do not fit into the Aryan race are systematically eliminated
These ‘other’ races include the minority groups such as the Roma (gypsies), homosexuals and mentally ill people and they are vigorously persecuted by the Nazis
Over 300,000 men and women were forcefully sterilized
Commencement of the ‘euthanasia programme’ where at least 5000 disabled babies and children were killed by injection or by starvation between 1939 and 1945, and 72000 mentally ill patients were gassed between 1939 and 1941
Others such as homosexuals, alcoholics, homeless, habitual criminals and beggars were rounded up off the streets and sent to concentration camps
Thus, through a systematic arrangement of killing, sterilization and imprisonment, the minority groups were discriminated upon by the Nazi government
Jews
The Jews were banned from employment in the civil service and a variety of public services such as broadcasting and teaching
Jewish shops and businesses were boycott
Jewish small businesses also lost contracts or forced to close down through intimidation
The Nuremberg Laws were enacted that took away German citizenship from the Jews and deprived them of all civil and political rights
Jews were forbidden to marry ‘pure-blooded’ Germans
Jewish children were humiliated in schools and segregated
Jews working in professional fields under government control all lost their jobs (eg. law, journalism, universities)
Kristallnacht or the Night of Broken Glass event 🡪 plain-clothed SS troopers rioted and smashed up Jewish shops and workplaces
Jews were murdered, synagogues were burned and 20000 jews were taken to concentration camps
This event was presented as the natural reaction of ordinary Germans against the Jews
In the final solution, from 1941, Jews placed in concentration camps and captured territories in Eastern Europe were used as slave labour, forced to live in ghettos and then systematically killed in death camps
It was estimated that, by 1945, about 6 million Jews were killed in this genocide
Through the intentional exclusion of the Jews from employment and schools, as well as social and political rights, to the aggressive attacks on the Jews and forced closures / destruction on their businesses and homes, to the systematic killings, the Nazi government had explicitly discriminated against the Jews
Exertion of Nazi control by Force
SS
The SS was led by Heinrich Himmler, and made up of very highly trained and loyal troops to Hitler
They were responsible for destroying opposition to Nazism and carrying out the racial policies of the Nazis
Monitored political opponents and stopped spies who tried to infiltrate the Nazi Party
The Gestapo could arrest citizens and send them to concentration camps without trial; by 1939, they had sent about 160,000 people
Thus, the SS network of spies and unquestioned authority would cast fear on the German citizens
Concentration Camps
Concentration camps were set up to correct opponents of the Nazi government
Prisoners were forced to do hard labour and given limited food
They suffered harsh discipline, beatings and random executions
Those who were punished include Jews, communists, trade unionists, churchmen and anyone else who criticize the Nazis
Thus, the German people were controlled through the threat of imprisonment and harsh treatment in concentration camps
Legal System: Police, Judges and Courts
Requirement that judges belong to the Nazi-approved National Socialist League for the Maintenance of the Law to practice law
Created a form of self-imposed control (self-censorship)
They knew what would be the right thing to do (from the Nazi perspective) and to do it in their judgement/s
Trial by jury was abolished 🡪 thus, Judges decided the outcome of all cases
Also meant that opponents of Nazism rarely received a fair trial
The police force was always headed by a high-ranking Nazi
Goering had control of the Berlin police force
Hitler appointed Himmler as the Chief of Police of Germany 🡪 effectively made the normal police force part of the SS
Soon, the police force became increasingly involved in political activities as well as law and order
With Nazi control of the country’s law and order machinery, it became a tool to ensure Nazi control over the country as well as to quash any form of opposition
Control by Winning the Hearts and Minds
Propaganda and Censorship
Headed by Joseph Goebbels, propaganda was used to encourage German nationalistic sentiments
Posters and portraits of Hitler and the Nazi party were spread throughout Germany to brainwash the German people
Use of propaganda cartoons to stir up anti-communists and racist feeling (anti-Semitism)
Held spectacular rallies, marches and meetings in the city of Nuremberg to impress and win over the Germans
Nazis invested heavily in the film industry to produce propaganda films supporting the Nazi government and hero-worshipping Hitler
The 1936 Olympics held in Berlin was also used to showcase the effectiveness and success of Nazi rule
What Germans read, hear and watch were strictly controlled
No books, paintings or any other art form could be produced without Nazi approval
Heavy censorship on books, newspapers and films
They have to carry a pro-Nazi message
Cheap radios were made readily available so that all Germans could buy one and listen to Nazi propaganda
Harsh penalties for anyone caught listening to unauthorized radio stations
Strict enforcement of these restriction – monitoring by Gestapo agents and informers
Anyone breaking these restrictions would be sent to concentration camps
Regular marches are held once a week, often handing out leaflets
These activities created the impression that the state was everywhere
Through the effective use of different media, the Nazi government sought to control the minds and impression of the people so that they will remain loyal and obedient to the Nazi government
How did the German people express resistance and opposition to the Nazi government?
Political Opposition
Some socialists and communists were still active in sending reports back to their leaders in exile or trying to encourage workers to resist by going on strike or sabotaging the factory equipment
Gestapo claimed to have broken up 1000 opposition meetings in 1936
Most of the opponents caught ended up in concentration camps and were almost certainly killed
Military Resistance
The aristocratic officers and conservatives opposed the Nazi regime
They were suspicious of Hitler and Nazism and grew increasingly concerned about Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy
Several officers went as far as to be involved in assassination attempts on Hitler – for example, the failed July 1944 Bomb Plot where many of these officers were later arrested, tried and executed
Refusal to Conform
There were some who refused to accept and conform to Nazi ideals
These were done through complains in bars, trains and other public places
Two groups that resisted the Nazis included the church and anti-Nazi youth groups
Many members of the clergy (in churches) criticized the Nazis in their sermons; there were Catholic priests and Protestant ministers who ended up in concentration camps
There were also some youth groups who rejected Nazi ideas
They were the White Rose and Edelsweiss Pirates, which secretly distributed leaflets on topics that revealed the atrocities of the Nazi regime as well as mocked the Nazis and getting into fights with the Hitler Youth
The Nazi regime responded brutally against these groups, arresting them and executing their leaders