1_The Weimar Republic (1918–1929)

End of World War One and the German Revolution

• By autumn 1918, it was clear Germany would lose World War One.

• Kiel Mutiny (3 November 1918): German sailors refused to attack the British Navy, sparking nationwide rebellions.

• Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November 1918, ending the German monarchy.

• Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, became Chancellor and took control of Germany.

• On 11 November 1918, Germany signed the armistice with the Allies (Britain, France, USA), ending World War One.

Formation of the Weimar Republic

• In January 1919, elections gave the SPD the majority, and Ebert became President.

• A new constitution was drawn up in Weimar since Berlin was unsafe after the Spartacist Uprising.

• The constitution was approved in August 1919, creating the Weimar Republic – Germany’s first democracy.

Strengths of the Weimar Constitution

• Genuine democracy: Elections for President and Reichstag every four years, with all adults over 20 allowed to vote.

• Power of the Reichstag: It made laws and appointed the government.

• Bill of Rights: Guaranteed freedom of speech, religion, and equality under the law.

Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution

• Proportional representation: Too many small parties led to weak, short-lived governments.

• Article 48: Allowed the President to rule without Parliament’s consent in an “emergency,” but this was poorly defined and overused.

Early Problems and Opposition

• The Republic was created during chaos, with defeat, starvation, and anger among Germans.

• Many Germans blamed the government for signing the armistice and called them the “November Criminals.”

• The “stab-in-the-back” myth claimed the army had been betrayed by politicians.

• Treaty of Versailles (28 June 1919): Germany was punished militarily, territorially, and financially.

• Germans viewed it as a harsh “Diktat” (dictated peace) and resented the government for signing it.

• The Republic faced violent uprisings from both left-wing and right-wing groups between 1919 and 1920.

Summary (Paragraph Form)

By late 1918, Germany’s defeat in World War One led to the German Revolution. The Kiel Mutiny on 3 November triggered widespread unrest and forced Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate on 9 November. Friedrich Ebert, leader of the SPD, became Chancellor and then President. On 11 November, Germany signed an armistice with the Allies, ending the war. A new constitution was drawn up in Weimar and approved in August 1919, establishing the Weimar Republic, Germany’s first democratic government.

The new constitution had clear strengths, including fair elections, a powerful Reichstag, and guaranteed civil rights. However, proportional representation and Article 48 created political instability and weakened democracy. The Republic began in turmoil, with many Germans blaming Ebert’s government for surrendering and signing the harsh Treaty of Versailles. This resentment, along with the “stab-in-the-back” myth, caused violent uprisings from both left and right, threatening the Republic’s survival.

Threats to the Weimar Republic 1919–1923

The Threat from the Left – The Spartacist Uprising

• Between 5–12 January 1919, about 50,000 members of the Communist Party (KPD), known as the Spartacists, rebelled in Berlin.

• They were led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht.

• The Freikorps (right-wing ex-soldiers), supported by the army, were used by Ebert’s government to crush the uprising.

• Liebknecht and Luxemburg were arrested and murdered by the Freikorps on 15 January 1919; Luxemburg’s body was dumped in a canal.

• Following this, communist uprisings spread across Germany, and a Communist People’s Government briefly took power in Bavaria.

• By May 1919, the Freikorps had crushed all communist revolts.

The Threat from the Right – The Kapp Putsch

• The Freikorps helped the government suppress the communists but were supposed to be disbanded under the Treaty of Versailles, which limited the army’s size.

• From 13–17 March 1920, Dr Wolfgang Kapp, a right-wing nationalist, led a Freikorps takeover in Berlin.

• The regular army refused to fight the Freikorps, showing sympathy toward them.

• The putsch failed when Berlin workers went on strike, stopping transport and services until Kapp fled.

Other Violence

• Right-wing nationalist terrorists assassinated 356 government officials between 1919–1923.

• Victims included Foreign Minister Walter Rathenau (June 1922) and Finance Minister Matthias Erzberger.

• Judges, many of whom supported the old Kaiser’s regime, gave light sentences or acquitted the assassins, showing bias toward the right.

Summary (Paragraph Form)

The Weimar Republic faced serious threats from both the political left and right soon after its creation. In January 1919, around 50,000 Spartacists, members of the Communist Party led by Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, launched a rebellion in Berlin. Ebert’s government relied on the Freikorps, ex-soldiers from the right, to crush the revolt. Luxemburg and Liebknecht were captured and killed by the Freikorps, and communist uprisings across Germany were suppressed by May 1919.

However, the right also turned against the Republic. In March 1920, Dr Wolfgang Kapp led the Kapp Putsch, a Freikorps-led takeover in Berlin in protest against the army’s reduction and disbandment of the Freikorps under the Treaty of Versailles. The army refused to act against them, but the putsch collapsed after a general strike by Berlin workers. Political violence continued, with right-wing extremists assassinating 356 politicians, including Walter Rathenau and Matthias Erzberger, while sympathetic judges gave them lenient punishments. These early crises showed the Republic’s weakness and lack of support from both sides of the political spectrum.

The Hyperinflation Crisis, 1923

French and Belgian Occupation of the Ruhr

• In November 1922, Germany missed a reparations payment due to lack of funds.

• France and Belgium believed Germany was refusing to pay and sent troops to occupy the Ruhr Valley, Germany’s main industrial region.

• They seized coal, steel, railways, and factories as compensation.

• The German government ordered “passive resistance” – workers went on strike and refused to cooperate with the occupying troops.

• The government paid the striking workers’ wages by printing more money.

• The French responded with violence – 132 Germans were killed, and about 150,000 were expelled from the Ruhr.

• The strike and money-printing caused economic collapse and hyperinflation.

• Political unrest increased as a general strike spread across Germany.

Hyperinflation

• Germany already faced high inflation from wartime debts and reparations.

• Passive resistance meant fewer goods were produced, weakening the economy further.

• The government printed even more money to pay workers, causing prices to skyrocket.

• By January 1923, a loaf of bread cost 250 marks, and by November 1923, it cost 200,000 million marks.

• The currency lost all value; it eventually cost more to print a note than the note was worth.

• Workers were paid twice daily as their wages became worthless within hours.

Hyperinflation Winners

• Borrowers, including businessmen and landowners, easily repaid loans with worthless money.

• Workers on daily wages managed at first but later couldn’t keep up with rising prices.

• Farmers benefited as food prices rose, and demand for produce stayed high.

Hyperinflation Losers

• Pensioners, students, and the sick on fixed incomes suffered as prices rose uncontrollably.

• Savers and lenders, including those who had lent to the government, lost everything since their money became worthless.

Rebellions in 1923

• Severe economic hardship led to multiple uprisings.

• September 1923: The Black Reichswehr (nationalists) rebelled.

• October 1923: Communists took over Saxony and Thuringia.

• Also in October, Communists in the Rhineland declared independence.

• November 1923: The Nazis attempted a putsch in Munich (the Munich Putsch).

Gustav Stresemann and Economic Recovery (1923–1929)

Background

• By 1923, the Weimar Republic was close to collapse due to hyperinflation and political unrest.

• The years 1924–1929 became known as a period of recovery and stability, often called the “Golden Years” of Weimar Germany.

• This turnaround was mainly due to Gustav Stresemann, who became Chancellor in August 1923 during the hyperinflation crisis.

• Stresemann was Chancellor for only three months but remained Foreign Minister until his death in October 1929, just before the Wall Street Crash.

• His leadership helped stabilise the economy, restore confidence, and improve Germany’s international position.

Ending Hyperinflation

Stresemann’s main achievement as Chancellor was ending the hyperinflation crisis in just three months by:

1. Ending passive resistance in the Ruhr, allowing production to restart and stopping the need to print money.

2. Promising to resume reparations payments, which persuaded France and Belgium to withdraw from the Ruhr by 1925.

3. Introducing a new currency, the Rentenmark, limited in supply to stabilise prices and restore both domestic and international confidence.

4. Reducing government spending by cutting 700,000 public sector jobs, which helped lower the budget deficit.

Renegotiating Reparations

Stresemann’s policies gained Allied sympathy, leading to two new repayment plans:

The Dawes Plan (April–September 1924)

• Total reparations remained at 50 billion marks, but Germany only paid 1 billion marks per year for the first 5 years, then 2.5 billion per year.

• Payments were indefinite.

• Germany received an 800 million mark loan from the USA to boost its economy.

The Young Plan (August 1929 – January 1930)

• Total reparations were reduced by 20%.

• Germany would pay 2 billion marks per year, with two-thirds postponable if necessary.

• Payments were to last 59 years, ending in 1988.

• Continued US loans, organised by J. P. Morgan, kept funding Germany’s recovery.

Did the Weimar Economy Really Recover?

Signs of Recovery

• By 1928, industrial production exceeded pre-war (1913) levels.

• Exports rose by 40% between 1925 and 1929.

• Hourly wages increased each year; up 10% in 1928 alone.

• IG Farben, a major chemical company, became Europe’s largest industrial firm.

• Pension, health, and unemployment insurance schemes were introduced in 1927.

Signs of Continued Weakness

• Agricultural production never returned to pre-war levels.

• Germany imported more than it exported, leading to trade deficits.

• Unemployment stayed above 1.3 million and rose to 1.9 million in 1929.

• Industry was dependent on US loans, creating economic vulnerability.

• The government continued to spend more than it earned, running deficits from 1925 onward.

Summary (Paragraph Form)

By 1923, Germany faced collapse due to hyperinflation and unrest, but Gustav Stresemann’s leadership transformed the country. As Chancellor, he ended hyperinflation by calling off passive resistance in the Ruhr, restarting production, and introducing a stable new currency, the Rentenmark. His promise to resume reparations led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops. Stresemann then renegotiated reparations through the Dawes and Young Plans, securing foreign loans—mainly from the USA—that helped Germany rebuild its industry and restore confidence.

Between 1924 and 1929, Germany experienced economic growth, rising wages, and social reforms, making this period known as the Weimar “Golden Years.” However, weaknesses remained: farming lagged behind industry, unemployment persisted, and the economy relied heavily on American loans. When Stresemann died in 1929, Germany’s recovery was still fragile and would soon collapse after the Wall Street Crash.

International Relations (1925–1928)

Background

• After World War I, Germany was blamed for the conflict and burdened with reparations under the Treaty of Versailles, leaving it isolated internationally.

• Germans felt bitter about their harsh treatment and loss of territory.

• Under Gustav Stresemann, as Foreign Minister, Germany’s international relations greatly improved between 1925 and 1928.

• This improvement was shown through three major events (covered in later slides).

Key Developments

• Stresemann’s diplomacy helped Germany re-enter the international community that aimed to maintain peace after WWI.

• Germany became more trusted and cooperative with other nations.

• These efforts restored national pride and reduced resentment caused by Versailles.

• The Weimar government gained credibility and public support, leading to greater political stability and less extremism.

• This period of collaboration and peace lasted until the Great Depression (1929), which undermined Stresemann’s achievements.

After Germany’s defeat in World War I and the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, the nation became isolated and resentful. However, between 1925 and 1928, Gustav Stresemann’s foreign policies dramatically improved Germany’s relations with other European powers. His diplomatic efforts allowed Germany to rejoin the international community that sought peace and cooperation, helping to restore its reputation and confidence. These successes also strengthened the Weimar Republic internally, as citizens saw real progress and became less drawn to extremist politics. Yet, this atmosphere of peace and collaboration ended abruptly with the Wall Street Crash and the start of the Great Depression in 1929.

Changes in Society, 1924–1929

I. Changes in the Standard of Living

• Debate exists among historians about whether a true “Golden Age” occurred.

• Hourly wages rose above inflation each year from 1924–1930 (10% rise in 1928).

• Pensions and sickness benefits were introduced.

• Unemployment insurance (1927) covered 17 million workers.

• Government funded parks, schools, sports facilities, and large-scale council housing.

• However, a rising working-age population caused unemployment to increase, and farmers faced falling incomes.

Between 1924 and 1929, the Weimar Republic saw significant improvements in living standards. Real wages rose consistently, social welfare schemes expanded, and the government invested in public amenities and housing. Yet, unemployment grew due to population increase, and farmers suffered from economic decline. Although conditions improved for many, not everyone benefited equally, leading historians to debate whether this period truly marked a “Golden Age.”

II. Changes in the Position of Women

Work

• After WWI, women were pressured to return to traditional roles to make room for returning soldiers.

• Economic conditions influenced women’s employment—during crises like 1923 and the Great Depression, women were urged to leave jobs.

• During mid-1920s recovery, female employment increased—1.7 million more women worked in 1925 than in 1907.

• Many took white-collar jobs, mostly single women under 25.

• However, the overall percentage of women in work rose by less than 1% between 1907 and 1925.

Women’s employment fluctuated depending on Germany’s economic situation. While postwar expectations pushed them back into traditional roles, economic recovery in the mid-1920s allowed more women to join the workforce, especially in clerical positions. Despite these advances, the overall number of working women changed little, reflecting the persistence of conservative attitudes.

III. Politics

Progress:

• Women gained the vote (1919) and the right to be elected to all political bodies.

• 82% turnout of women voters in the 1919 election matched men’s turnout.

• Political parties began targeting women’s votes through propaganda.

• Women served in local and regional assemblies (about 8% of Prussian Landtag members).

Limitations:

• After 1919, female turnout was 5–10% lower than men’s.

• Propaganda still portrayed women mainly as wives and mothers.

• By 1933, only 4.6% of parliamentary representatives were women.

• No women held cabinet positions or sat in the Reichsrat.

• Women often voted for religious or conservative parties; the Nazis later targeted them heavily in propaganda.

Politically, women made initial progress with full voting rights and increased representation after 1919. However, their influence remained limited, as few reached higher positions and propaganda reinforced traditional roles. Despite growing participation, women’s political power under the Weimar Republic stayed relatively weak.

IV. Leisure

• The 1920s image of the “New Woman” resembled the American “Flapper”—modern, independent, and fashionable.

• However, not all women experienced this lifestyle.

• Leisure opportunities reflected both change and continuity, as traditional expectations still shaped many women’s lives.

The “New Woman” symbolized modernity and independence in Weimar Germany, but her lifestyle was far from universal. While some urban women embraced new freedoms and fashions, many continued to live traditionally, showing that cultural change coexisted with enduring social norms.

SUMMARY table