Notes on WWI, U.S. Entry, and Postwar Era (1914–1920s)
Course Announcements and Administrative Details
Ragtime paper due on Tuesday; online submission expected by Thursday (deadline referenced as “last” Thursday in email).
About 10 spots left for Ragtime paper; not required to be half the class; one or two more is fine; email if interested.
Office hours/meeting: Next Monday, 1–2:00 in Anthro (room number unclear in transcript). The instructor will be in a different section; email for details.
Last chance to work with the instructor before the midterm; the instructor will be unavailable Monday evening through Wednesday evenings due to Jewish New Year.
Doctor Anderson could be contact during that period.
Questions about any topic? Email instruction.
Paper formatting: Chicago is preferred for historians, but any consistent format is acceptable; the grader will care about consistency, not the particular style.
Reading for exam: Ragtime and The Good Old Days will be on the exam; read them regardless of your paper topic; if a paper is about a different diary, still read Ragtime.
If you can’t find a prompt in the materials, check the syllabus or study guide; the prompt is included in the study guide checked in the first week.
Record availability request: a student asked about recording the midterm review; instructor will consider it.
Prelude: Broad Context and the Outbreak of World War I (1914)
Europe circa 1914 featured a dense network of empires and colonial powers; the continent was on the verge of war.
Archduke Franz Ferdinand’s assassination in June 1914 set off a chain reaction among great powers (Austria-Hungary, Serbia, Russia, Germany, Britain), leading to a broad continental war.
The United States faced a critical decision about its role; American diplomats in Europe failed to sense the approaching catastrophe.
Belgium’s invasion was perceived as a moral atrocity by Americans, given Belgium’s neutral status and a prior treaty with Belgium.
American Neutrality and Neutral Rights (1914–1915)
Wilson declared neutrality and urged Americans to stay neutral, while also protecting neutral rights in international law.
The traditional neutral-right doctrine: the right to trade with belligerents, except for contraband (war supplies).
The maxim “free ships make free goods” framed U.S. policy: neutral ships and neutral goods could travel between ports of belligerents.
The British blockade of Germany (begun in 1914) aimed to choke German war capacity and protect Britain, prompting clashes with U.S. interests.
Blockade enforcement included the right to stop ships at sea and search them; Britain even searched and sometimes seized ships in British ports.
Germany responded with unrestricted submarine warfare, declaring the waters around Britain a war zone and sinking vessels, including neutrals, without warning—a crisis in maritime law and ethics.
The early U.S. approach sought to maintain neutrality, with emphasis on rights to trade and a belief that neutral rights should be protected by law, though there were conflicting calculations about how to enforce them.
The Allied economic advantage: from 1914–1916, U.S. trade with Britain and France increased roughly fourfold; the U.S. was a key supplier of arms and munitions to Britain.
War sentiment in the United States grew as the British blockade and German submarine warfare disrupted neutral shipping and threatened American lives and interests.
The War Expands: Key Conflicts and Shifts (1915–1916)
The German U‑boat campaign intensified, with submarine warfare driving strategic and ethical debates in Washington.
The Sussex Affair (Spring 1916): a German torpedo hit the French passenger ship Sussex, causing casualties including Americans; this led Wilson to demand an end to unrestricted submarine warfare and to threaten severing diplomatic ties if Germany did not curtail, which Germany initially promised to honor.
Germany’s policy shift briefly paused unrestricted submarine warfare but resumed in 1917 after strategic calculations, including aiming to breach British morale and force a quicker resolution of the war.
The war in Europe featured brutal battles with staggering casualties: Gettysburg (U.S. Civil War) listed as a comparator in the lecture; Verdun (9 imes 10^5 casualties) and the Somme (roughly 1.1 imes 10^6) highlighted the scale of WWI.
The war’s human costs fed into U.S. diplomatic calculations about whether to enter the war to shape a postwar order rather than to stay out.
The Zimmerman Telegram and U.S. Entry (1917)
Zimmerman Telegram (January 1917): German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann proposed a military alliance with Mexico if the U.S. entered the war against Germany, offering to return territories (the states of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas) to Mexico after a German victory.
The British intercepted and shared the telegram with the United States; domestic outrage followed when details were published (March 1917).
Russia’s collapse in 1917 opened the door for Wilson to frame the conflict as a democratic fight alongside other democracies.
The U.S. government had already faced naval and diplomatic provocations (Sinking of ships, ships sunk with American casualties) that raised pressure to act.
The German decision to resume unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 was a critical miscalculation that contributed to U.S. entry into the war.
U.S. Declaration of War and Mobilization (April 1917–1918)
Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war on Germany (April 2, 1917); Congress approved with overwhelming support (the vote “passed with over 90%” in favor).
U.S. entry shifted from a policy of neutrality to active involvement in European fighting and in shaping a postwar order.
Mobilization: the U.S. rapidly built up its military strength after declaring war.
Draft and conscription: Congress passed the Selective Service Act; all males aged 18–45 registered; the draft broadened access and equality in military service compared to the Civil War.
By 1918, the U.S. military grew to roughly 3{,}000{,}000 personnel, with over 1{,}000{,}000 from states like Texas registering and a large Texas presence in service; around 200{,}000 Texans served.
Texas A&M contributed significantly: the college offered to harness its entire campus for the federal war effort; the government declined, but A&M mobilized vigorously, producing a large share of officers and enlistees (about 50 ext{%} of graduates in military service by 1918; over 1{,}200 officers; approximately 50 A&M graduates serving as generals; 50 Hawaiian graduates in service).
Women’s service expanded: women were admitted to the armed forces for the first time (in the Navy) as petty officers and yeomen; about 11{,}000 women served in roles such as secretaries, nurses, and communications; nearly 39 died in service (all non-combat deaths).
Wages and incentives: enlisted men received pay (about 45/month); unskilled workers earned about $2/day equivalent; higher wages and incentives accompanied the war mobilization.
Racial dynamics: the war accelerated the Great Migration; many African Americans moved from the South to the North for factory work; roughly 350{,}000 Black soldiers were drafted or volunteered; units like the Harlem Hellfighters distinguished themselves in France; many Black troops faced segregation in the U.S. and allied forces.
Front-line and colonial troops: Black troops fought bravely, with French colonial and allied troops augmenting American forces; the U.S. and Allied command faced integration challenges and racial tensions.
Domestic Civil Liberties, Espionage, and the Red Scare (1917–1920)
Espionage and Sedition Acts: imposed fines up to $10{,}000 and up to 20 years in prison for aiding the enemy or obstructing the war effort, and for disloyal or profane criticism of the United States and its government or Constitution.
Prominent cases: socialist leader Eugene V. Debs (Eugene Victor Debs) faced charges; he criticized Wilson’s war aims as contradictory to democratic ideals; Debs was jailed under anti-immigrant and anti-voter restrictions; Victor Berger was denied a seat in Congress due to his antiwar stance.
Civil liberties clashes: debates about free speech intensified; the ACLU (American Civil Liberties Union) formed or grew in response to government crackdowns; the act’s broad language raised concerns about freedoms of expression and association.
Domestic repression: raids on radical groups, private homes, and union headquarters; deportations of suspected radicals (e.g., December 1919 saw about 250 foreigners deported for alleged radical activity); the U.S. government asserted strong measures against perceived threats.
Immigration and demographics: large-scale immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe (e.g., Jews from Eastern Europe, Catholics, Italians) contributed to social tension and political backlash; immigration acts restricted entry from these regions (see 1921 and 1924 acts).
Anti-German sentiment: schools and public life reacted to the war by suppressing German culture and language; German-language instruction declined; German composers’ works faced removal from curricula; street renamings and cultural shifts occurred; some locales renamed German-named towns (e.g., a Texas town renamed Old Glory, Texas).
The 1918–1919 influenza pandemic: the world, including the U.S., faced a devastating flu outbreak as troops returned home; public lifesaving measures included closures of churches, theaters, and public spaces; the pandemic disrupted society similarly to later events (e.g., in 2020).
The Home Front and Economic Transformation (1917–1919)
War-related economic growth: the economy expanded; growth driven by war production and mobilization; the United States emerged as a major industrial power.
The war’s mobilization also reshaped labor markets; the Great Migration continued; women and minorities filled essential roles in industry and services.
Cultural shifts: debates over religion, education (Scopes Trial) and modernity; early 20th-century clashes between progressive reforms and conservative backlash intensified in the postwar period.
The Aftermath of War: Peace, Politics, and Global Reconfiguration (1919–1920s)
Peace negotiations and the 14 Points (January 1918): Wilson outlined a vision emphasizing self-determination, open seas, and a liberal postwar order.
Key elements: independence for Poland; national self-determination for oppressed nationalities; redrawing borders to reflect ethnic lines; decolonization and independence for colonies; freedom of the seas; creation of a League of Nations.
The rationale: to reshape the postwar world according to Wilson’s ideals of democracy, liberal internationalism, and collective security.
Versailles Peace Conference (Palace of Versailles, January 1919): the “Big Four” leaders shaped postwar arrangements:
Britain: David Lloyd George
Italy: Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
France: Georges Clemenceau
United States: Woodrow Wilson
Wilson’s unprecedented international diplomacy: Wilson was the first U.S. president to take a major international leadership role in Europe, touring the United States to advocate for the peace plan; he suffered a debilitating stroke during the process, leading to diminished presidential capacity and reliance on Edith Wilson for administrative duties.
Senate opposition and the Treaty of Versailles:
Treaty required ratification by the Senate; Wilson did not secure Republican support in the Senate.
Two main opposition groups:
Irreconcilables: staunch isolationists (e.g., Senator William Borah of Idaho) who opposed the treaty under any terms.
Reservationists: Henry Cabot Lodge and others who argued for changes or reservations before ratification.
Lodge, as chair of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, demanded approximately 45 changes; Wilson refused to accept major amendments, stalling ratification.
Wilson’s strategy to sell the treaty directly to the American public failed to overcome partisan divides; his health decline further undermined his ability to champion the treaty.
Political shift and legacy: postwar America moved toward isolationism and limited international engagement; the 1920s were dominated by Republican presidents (Harding, then Coolidge) with a laissez-faire, pro-business, and relatively restrained foreign policy; the U.S. did not join the League of Nations or the World Court, signaling a retreat from liberal internationalism.
Domestic sociopolitical aftershocks and cultural shifts:
The red scare intensified: a wave of anti-radical sentiment, Labor unrest, and government crackdowns characterized by Palmer raids (A. Mitchell Palmer) and surveillance; Edgar Hoover (later FBI director) participated in early efforts that helped establish modern security and law-enforcement practices.
Labor and the “new” progressives: labor strikes and union activity faced government and corporate pushback; the state used legal tools to suppress strikes and label labor radicals as threats.
Immigration policy: immigration Acts (1921 and 1924) restricted entry, explicitly favoring Northern and Western European immigrants while severely limiting Southern and Eastern European and Asian immigration; e.g., quotas reduced from previously higher levels to set caps (e.g., Poland from >30{,}000 to 6{,}000; Italy from >40{,}000 to 4{,}000; Canada and Mexico exemptions noted in the transcript).
Cultural backlash: Scopes Trial highlighted debates over evolution in schools; religious and cultural conflicts framed the broader “Americanism” narrative of the era.
New demographics and demographics-driven politics: the 14 million+ new immigrants between 1900 and 1917 (documented in the transcript as over 14{,}000{,}000 in that period across generations) reshaped American society and contributed to the debate over national identity.
Key Takeaways and Connections to Foundational Principles
The U.S. entered World War I reluctantly but ultimately to defend neutral rights and to shape a postwar order grounded in liberal internationalism, even as domestic actors debated freedom, civil liberties, and the scope of executive power.
The 14 Points embodied Wilson’s vision of self-determination, open seas, and a global security framework, but the resulting Versailles settlement did not realize these aims to the satisfaction of many U.S. and Allied actors, generating long-term tensions and debates about the legitimacy and effectiveness of internationalism.
Domestic policy in wartime revealed tensions between civil liberties and national security, culminating in Acts that restricted speech and dissent and a wave of repression and deportation of perceived radicals, which spurred the creation and evolution of civil liberties organizations like the ACLU.
The postwar era saw a mix of economic expansion and social strife: the Roaring Twenties, continued racial segregation and migration patterns, and a rise in anti-immigrant sentiment culminating in restrictive immigration laws, alongside a cultural battleground over modernity, science, religion, and democracy.
The era's military mobilization and social changes set the stage for the U.S. and global politics in the interwar period, including debates about collective security, international institutions, and the limits of American engagement in European affairs.
Notable People, Terms, and Concepts Mentioned
Archduke Franz Ferdinand; assassination as trigger for WWI.
Free ships, free goods; contraband; neutrality under international law.
Unrestricted submarine warfare; “war zone” around Britain; moral and legal implications.
Lusitania and Sussex incidents; diplomatic notes; threats of breaking off relations.
Zimmerman Telegram; alliance with Mexico; territory promises.
The Big Four: David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, Woodrow Wilson.
14 Points; principles of national self-determination and open diplomacy; League of Nations.
Versailles Treaty; Senate ratification process; irreconcilables and reservationists; Henry Cabot Lodge.
Wilson’s stroke and Edith Wilson’s involvement; impact on governance.
ACLU; Espionage and Sedition Acts; Palmer Raids; anti-radical campaigns.
Great Migration; Harlem Hellfighters; racial dynamics in the war and on the home front.
Scopes Trial; debates over evolution in schools.
Immigration Acts of 1921 and 1924; quota restrictions; impact on immigrant communities.
1918–1919 influenza pandemic; public health and societal responses.
Postwar economic expansion and the shift to a conservative, isolationist foreign policy in the 1920s.
Timeline Highlights (Selected Dates)
1914: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand; outbreak of WWI in Europe; early neutrality posture by the U.S.
1915: Lusitania incident; Sussex (April 1916) raising tensions; ultimata issued by Wilson; beginnings of diplomatic strains.
1917: Zimmerman Telegram (January); German resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare (February); U.S. declaration of war (April 2); Congress vote with overwhelming support (>90 ext{%} in favor).
1918–1919: U.S. military involvement intensifies; the flu pandemic; 14 Points announced (January 1918); Paris Peace Conference (January 1919); Versailles negotiations begin; the home-front social and political turmoil continues.
1919–1920: Red Scare intensifies; Palmer raids; deportations; immigration acts enacted following the war; Scopes Trial debate on evolution in schools.
1920s: Harding and Coolidge administrations; rise of laissez-faire policies; retreat from international engagement; continuing debates over civil liberties, immigration, and American identity.
Quick Reference: Exam-Relevant Points (Recap)
Why did the U.S. enter WWI? To protect neutral rights, counter unrestricted submarine warfare, and influence a postwar settlement aligned with liberal democratic ideals (as argued by Wilson).
What did Wilson’s 14 Points propose? Self-determination, redrawing borders along ethnic lines, decolonization, free seas, open diplomacy, and a League of Nations to ensure collective security.
What hampered U.S. ratification of the Versailles treaty? Partisan opposition in the Senate (irreconcilables and reservationists), especially Lodge; Wilson’s failure to secure Republican support and his health decline during the treaty campaign.
How did the war reshape American society? Massive mobilization, the draft, A&M’s war effort, the role of women in the Navy, the Great Migration, racial tensions and integration challenges, wartime censorship and civil liberties restrictions, and the beginnings of red scare-era policing and immigration restriction.
What were two major domestic legacies? The expansion of civil liberties challenges and the beginnings of immigration restriction with the 1921 and 1924 acts.
How did WWI end for the Allies and the world? Armistice on November 11, 1918; subsequent redrawing of Europe’s map; a controversial peace that sowed seeds of future conflicts and debated internationalism versus isolationism.
If you want, I can re-format these notes into separate topic cards (e.g., one card per week or per major theme) or pull out a condensed study guide with definitions and key dates for quick review.