The 'L-Word': A Short History of Liberalism

by Terence Ball (University of Minnesota) and Richard Dagger (Arizona State University)

Inquiry: Are these good or bad times for liberalism?
- Domestic Context: Negative sentiment towards liberalism after the Reagan administration, and political campaigning using "the L-word" with a pejorative connotation.
- International Context: Some movements towards liberalism in the Communist world. Notable exceptions include China post-Tiananmen Square.
- Need for Context: To understand contemporary liberalism, one must examine its historical development and the ideological debates amongst various wings of liberalism.

Origins: The term "liberal" did not enter political vocabulary until the 1800s, over a century after liberalism's beginnings as a political movement.
Etymology: "Liberal" derives from Latin "liber," meaning free. It originally connoted generosity or tolerance, eventually extending to a societal model promoting tolerance and individual freedom.
First Application: The term "liberal" was first used in Spain in 1810-1811 when a faction of the Spanish Cortes adopted the name Liberales.
- Spread: The term rapidly propagated to France and Great Britain, influencing the Whig Party’s evolution into the Liberal Party by the 1840s.

Historical Influences: Early liberals often claimed association with thinkers like John Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, seeking legitimacy in their ideas and lineage.
- Reaction: Original liberals challenged medieval society's norms:
- Religious Conformity: In medieval Europe, church and state were indistinguishable; conformity was enforced with the aim to maintain orthodoxy, targeting heretics through secular authorities.
- Ascribed Status: Status based on birth (nobles, commoners, serfs) restricted upward mobility.

Association with Revolutions: Liberalism coincided with revolutionary movements, interpreting "revolution" as societal transformation rather than mere return to status quo.
Key Theorists and Texts:
- Thomas Hobbes: In Leviathan (1651), proposed absolute sovereignty for security, arguing individuals consent to governance but laid foundations for individual equality.
- John Locke:
- Letter Concerning Toleration (1689): Advocated separation of church and state.
- Two Treatises of Government (1690): Emphasized government’s consent from the governed and argued for limited government.
- Concept of natural rights: life, liberty, and property influenced both the American Declaration of Independence and basic liberal principles.

American Declaration of Independence:
- Claimed rights of individuals shaped by Lockean ideology: equality and rights to life, liberty, and happiness.
- Tested the continuity between revolutionary ideals and lived realities, especially concerning issues of race and gender equality.
French Revolution: Addressed the ancient regime's religious conformity, aristocratic privilege, and absolute rule
- Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789):
- Affirmed the principle that all men are inherently free and equal in their rights.
- Touted natural rights to liberty, property, and resistance to oppression, confronting aristocracy and religious dogma.

Evolution:
- Earlier liberals viewed government as a necessary evil; mid-19th century argued for its active role in promoting individual liberty through franchise expansion.
Utilitarianism:
- Jeremy Bentham: Advocated for the greatest happiness; argued for democratic involvement to ensure equality.
- John Stuart Mill: Supported adult suffrage, emphasizing moral and intellectual engagement through political participation.
- Proposed "plural voting" for the educated, showing ambivalence toward full democratization due to fears of majority tyranny.

On Liberty (1859): Defined liberty focusing on harm to others as justification for power’s exercise. Emphasized the need for protection against the tyranny of the majority.
Positive Liberty:
- T. H. Green challenged negative liberty's constraints, advocating for state action to enable individuals to realize their potential through opportunities.

Post-19th century: Shift from neoclassical liberalism to welfare liberalism as the industrial state grew and demanded more social reforms.
Neoclassical Liberalism: Emphasized laissez-faire principles and natural market operations.
Welfare Liberalism: Advocated for interventionist policies aimed at promoting social welfare and equal opportunities.

Continued Debate:
- Ongoing discussion between welfare and neoclassical liberals regarding the role of government in individual freedoms and equality of opportunity.
- The rise of libertarianism signals ongoing ideological conflicts and broader democratic participation arguments.
Impact of Global Changes: Liberal ideas remain vital in many global contexts where political and religious freedoms are still contested.

Modern Liberal Paradoxes:
- Concerns over the application of the harm principle and individual freedoms lead to societal and legal complexities.
- Differing views on the extent of government intervention to ensure equal opportunities raise contentious debates around welfare policies, affirmative action, and societal inequalities.
- The current liberal orientation must adapt to respond effectively to these dilemmas while continuing to uphold the core ideals of individual liberty and opportunity.

Liberalism's relevance remains to be seen as it continues to navigate consensus-building among its factions concerning the role of state and individual agency, while adapting to contemporary and global challenges.