AP U.S. Government and Politics Vocabulary - Constitutional Democracy

Constitutional Democracy

Democracy: Government by the people, either directly or indirectly, with free and frequent elections.
Direct democracy: Government in which citizens vote directly on laws and select officials.
Representative democracy: (Republic) Government where people elect representatives to govern and pass laws.
Constitutional democracy: Government with recognized limits, where the people's voice is heard through free, fair, and frequent elections.
Constitutionalism: System of checks and balances, federalism, separation of powers, rule of law, due process, and a bill of rights, ensuring leaders listen, think, and bargain before acting; leaders are held accountable.
Statism: The nation's rights are supreme over individual rights.
Popular consent: Government derives power from the consent of the governed.
Majority rule: Governance according to the preferences of the majority.
Majority: More than half the votes cast.
Plurality: The most votes, but not necessarily more than half.
Theocracy: Government by religious leaders claiming divine guidance.
Articles of Confederation: First governing document of the U.S. (1777), ratified in 1781, replaced in 1789 by the Constitution.
Annapolis Convention: (1786) Five states met to discuss trade and navigation problems; called for the Constitutional Convention.
Constitutional Convention: In Philadelphia (May-Sept 1787), where the Constitution was debated and agreed upon.

Key Events and Plans

Shays’s Rebellion: (1786-1787) Farmers in western Massachusetts protested mortgage foreclosures, highlighting the need for a strong national government and spurring the Constitutional Convention.
Bicameralism: A two-house legislature.
Virginia Plan: Proposed a strong central government with a bicameral legislature dominated by larger states.
New Jersey Plan: Proposed a central government with a single-house legislature where each state had equal representation.
Connecticut Compromise: Created a bicameral legislature: a lower house based on population and an upper house with two senators per state.
Three-fifths compromise: An agreement where three-fifths of the slave population would be counted for taxation and representation in the House.
Federalists: Supporters of the Constitution and a strong central government.
Antifederalists: Opponents of the Constitution and a strong central government.
The Federalist: Essays by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison promoting the Constitution.

Core Principles

Natural law: God’s or nature’s law defining right and wrong, superior to human law.
Separation of powers: Division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative makes laws, the executive enforces laws, and the judiciary interprets laws.
Checks and balances: Each branch can check the others to prevent any one branch from dominating.
Divided government: When the presidency is held by one party and one or both houses of Congress are controlled by the other party.
Direct primary: Election where voters choose party nominees.
Initiative: A procedure that allows voters to propose laws or constitutional amendments via petition.
Referendum: A procedure where measures passed by the legislature or proposed constitutional amendments are submitted to popular vote.
Recall: A procedure allowing voters to remove officials from office before their term ends.
Marbury v. Madison: Landmark case establishing judicial review in the U.S.
- William Marbury was appointed Justice of the Peace, but his commission wasn't delivered.
- Thomas Jefferson ordered James Madison to withhold the commission.
- Marbury petitioned the Supreme Court to force Madison to deliver the commission.
- The Court denied Marbury's petition, declaring the statute unconstitutional.
Judicial review: The power of a court to invalidate a law or regulation that conflicts with the U.S. Constitution or a state constitution.
Writ of mandamus: A court order to an official to perform a duty.
Impeachment: Formal accusation by the lower house of legislature, first step in removing an official from office.
Executive order: A directive issued by a president or governor with the force of law.
Executive privilege: The power to keep executive communications confidential, especially concerning national security.
Impoundment: Presidential refusal to spend funds appropriated by Congress.

American Federalism

Devolution revolution: Effort to reduce the federal government's growth by returning functions to the states.
Federalism: Power divided between a central government and subdivisional governments (states), with both having direct authority over individuals.
Dual federalism (layer cake federalism): The Constitution gives limited powers to the national government (foreign policy, national defense), leaving the rest to the states. Each level is dominant in its own sphere. The Supreme Court acts as an umpire.
Cooperative federalism: Stresses intergovernmental relations in delivering goods and services, requiring cooperation among government levels.
Marble cake federalism: All government levels are involved in various issues and programs, not fixed divisions like dual federalism.
Competitive federalism: National, state, and local governments compete to assemble service and tax packages, like a marketplace.
Permissive federalism: States' share of power depends on the permission and permissiveness of the national government.
“Our federalism”: Championed by Ronald Reagan, favors broad powers reserved to the states.
Unitary system: Power concentrated in a central government.
Confederation: Sovereign states create a central government with limited power, without direct authority over individuals.
Express powers: Powers specifically granted to the national government in the Constitution.
Implied powers: Powers inferred from express powers, allowing Congress to carry out its functions.
Necessary and proper clause: (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 3) Congress can make laws necessary to execute its powers.

Governmental Powers

Inherent powers: Powers of the national government in foreign affairs that arise from its existence, not constitutional grants.
Commerce clause: (Article 1, Section 8, Clause 1) Congress can regulate business activities across state lines or affecting multiple states/nations.
Federal mandate: Requirement imposed by the federal government as a condition for receiving funds.
Concurrent powers: Powers shared by national and state governments, such as levying taxes.
Full faith and credit clause: (Article 4, Section 1) States must recognize other states' civil judgments and accept their public records/acts.
Extradition: Legal process of surrendering an alleged criminal from one state to the state where the crime occurred.
Interstate compact: Agreement between two or more states, often requiring Congressional approval.
National supremacy: Federal actions prevail over state/local government actions when conflicts arise.
Preemption: Federal law or regulation overrides state/local law or regulation.
Centralists: Favor national action over state/local action.
Decentralists: Favor state/local action over national action.
Categorical-formula grants: Funds for specific purposes (e.g., school lunches, highways), allocated by formula with federal conditions and supervision.
Project grants: Funds allocated based on applications for specific projects (e.g., research grants).
State’s rights: Powers reserved to the states.
Block grants: Broad grants to states for activities like welfare, education, with few strings attached, offering states flexibility.
Direct orders: Federal regulations that must be complied with under threat of sanction.
Cross-cutting requirements: Federal grant conditions extending to all activities supported by federal funds (e.g., Civil Rights Act Title VI).
Crossover sanctions: Using federal money in one program to influence state policy in another (e.g., highway aid reduction for states not adopting a minimum drinking age).
Total and Partial Preemption: Federal law preempts conflicting state/local activity. Partial preemption establishes basic policies but requires states to administer them.
Creative federalism: Intergovernmental relations during the Great Society era.
Fiscal federalism: Grant programs dividing responsibilities among government levels.
“Necessary and proper” clause: (Elastic Clause) Congress can make laws necessary to execute its powers, allowing Congress broad lawmaking ability.
Linkage institutions: Means by which individuals can express public policy preferences.
Photo ops: Photo opportunities set up by candidates.
Sound bites: Brief statements on news shows.

Political Culture and Ideology

Political culture: Shared beliefs, values, and norms about citizens' relationship to government and each other.
Social capital: Democratic habits of discussion, compromise, and respect from participation in voluntary organizations.
Natural rights: Rights to dignity and worth (human rights).
Democratic consensus: Widespread agreement on democratic governance principles and values.
Popular sovereignty: Ultimate power resides in the people.
American dream: Belief in the U.S. as a land of opportunity where hard work leads to success.
Capitalism: Economic system with private property, competitive markets, incentives, and limited government involvement.
Suffrage: The right to vote.
Monopoly: Domination of an industry by a single company that fixes prices and discourages competition.
Antitrust legislation: Laws preventing monopolies from dominating industries and restraining trade (e.g., Sherman Act of 1890).
Political ideology: Consistent beliefs about political values and government role.
Liberalism: Belief that government should achieve justice and equality.
Conservatism: Belief that limited government ensures order, competitive markets, and opportunity.
Socialism: Economic and governmental system based on public ownership of production and exchange.
Libertarianism: Ideology emphasizing individual liberty and minimal government.

American Political Landscape

Ethnocentrism: Belief in one’s nation or ethnic group's superiority.
Political socialization: Process of developing political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
Demographics: Study of population characteristics.
Political predisposition: Individual characteristics predicting political behavior.
Reinforcing cleavages: Divisions reinforcing each other, making groups homogenous.
Cross-cutting cleavages: Divisions cutting across categories, producing heterogeneous groups.
Manifest destiny: 19th-century belief that the U.S. was destined to rule the continent.
Race: Grouping based on distinctive, genetically inherited characteristics.
Ethnicity: Social division based on national origin, religion, language, and race.
Gender gap: Difference in political opinions or behavior between men and women.
Fundamentalists: Conservative Christians active in politics.
Gross domestic product (GDP): Total output of economic activity in a nation.
Socioeconomic status (SES): Division based on occupation, income, and education.

Interest Groups

Faction: Term used by founders for political parties and interest groups.
Pluralism: Theory that multiple, competing groups check each other's power.
Interest group: Group sharing a common interest, seeking to influence government.
Movement: Large body of people focused on an issue, seeking to change attitudes or institutions.
Open shop: Union membership is not required for employment.
Closed shop: Union membership is a condition of employment.
Free rider: Receives benefits of group influence without joining.
Nongovernmental organization (NGO): Nonprofit group operating outside government, advocating for policy objectives.
Collective action: How groups form and organize to achieve goals.
Public choice: Studies how officials, politicians, and voters respond to incentives.
Federal Register: Official document listing new/proposed regulations.
amicus curiae brief: “Friend of the court” brief presenting arguments in a case.
Lobbyist: Person employed to influence policy decisions in government.
Lobbying: Activities aimed at influencing public officials.
Revolving door: Government regulators later working for related interest groups.
Issue network: Relationships among interest groups, committees, and agencies with a shared policy concern.
Political action committee (PAC): Raises funds to contribute to candidates/parties.
Leadership PAC: PAC formed by an officeholder to contribute to other candidates/parties.
Bundling: PACs collect contributions and present them as a “bundle” to increase influence.
Soft money: Previously unlimited money for party-building (largely illegal now).
Quid pro quo: Something given with the expectation of return.
Independent expenditures: Unlimited spending for/against candidates, independent of them.
Issue advocacy: Spending on communications that don’t directly advocate voting for/against, but influence elections.
527 organization: Group that can spend unlimited money on election activities, except broadcast ads close to elections mentioning candidates.

Political Parties

Political party: Organization seeking power by electing people to office.
Nonpartisan election: Candidates are not selected/endorsed by parties.
Patronage: Dispensing government jobs to party members.
Hard money: Limited, disclosed contributions to parties/candidates.
Honeymoon: Period of positive relations between president and press/Congress at the start of a term.
Caucus: Meeting of party members to choose officials/candidates and decide the platform.
Party convention: Delegates vote on policy and select candidates.
Direct primary: Voters choose party nominees.
Open primary: Any voter can vote, regardless of party.
Crossover voting: Member of one party voting for another party’s candidate.
Closed primary: Only registered party members can vote.
Proportional representation: Legislative seats proportional to vote share.
Winner-take-all system: Candidate with the most votes wins.
Minor party: Small party rising/falling with a candidate or persisting over time.
Libertarian party: Believes in limited government and expanded individual liberties.
Green party: Dedicated to the environment, social justice, and nonviolence.
Reform party: Focuses on government reform and fiscal responsibility.
Realigning election: Marks a turning point, redefining politics and voter alignment.
Laissez-faire economics: Opposes government interference in economic affairs.
Keynesian economics: Government spending should increase during slumps and curb during booms.
National party convention: Delegates nominate candidates, ratify the platform, and elect officers.
Party registration: Declaring party affiliation.
Party identification: Subjective affiliation with a party acquired in childhood.
Dealignment: Weakening partisan preferences and rejection of major parties.

Principles of Public Opinion

Public opinion: Distribution of preferences on an issue, candidate, or institution.
Random sample: Every individual has an equal chance of being selected.
Manifest opinion: Widely shared, consciously held view.
Political socialization: Developing political attitudes, values, and beliefs.
Attentive public: Citizens who follow public affairs carefully.
Voter registration: System to reduce voter fraud by establishing voting eligibility.
Australian ballot: A secret ballot printed by the state.
General election: Elections to elect officeholders.
Primary election: Elections to determine party nominees.
Presidential election: Held in years when the president is on the ballot.
Midterm election: Held midway between presidential elections.
Turnout: Proportion of the voting-age public that votes.
Candidate appeal: How voters feel about a candidate's qualities.
Prospective issue voting: Voting based on a candidate's future plans.
Retrospective issue voting: Holding incumbents responsible for past performance.

Electoral Concepts

Single-member district: Voters choose one representative per district.
Electoral college: Voters vote for electors pledged to candidates.
Safe seat: Office predictably won by one party.
Coattail effect: Candidates boosted by popular candidates above them on the ballot.
National tide: Focus on national issues during an election.
Name recognition: Incumbents have an advantage due to familiarity.
Interested money: Financial contributions to influence election outcomes.
Federal Election Commission (FEC): Administers election reform laws.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA): Banned party soft money and restricted corporate/union funding.

Relation to the Media

Mass media: Communication reaching the public.
News media: Media emphasizing news.
Selective exposure: Screening out messages that don't conform to biases.
Selected perception: Perceiving what one wants in media messages.
Horse race: Focusing on who is ahead rather than substantive issues.
Constituents: Residents of a congressional district or state.

Legislative Branch

Reapportionment: Assigning congressional seats after each census.
Redistricting: Redrawing district lines to accommodate population shifts.
Gerrymandering: Drawing district boundaries to benefit a party/group.
Enumerated powers: Powers expressly given to Congress in the Constitution.
Speaker: Presiding officer in the House.
Party caucus: Meeting to select party leaders and develop policy.
Majority leader: Plans party strategy.
Minority leader: Spokesperson for the opposition.
Whip: Liaison between leadership and rank-and-file.
Closed rule: No amendments to bills.
Open rule: Floor amendments permitted.
President pro tempore: Officer acting as chair in the Senate when the vice president is absent.
Hold: Temporarily blocks consideration of a bill.
Filibuster: Delaying proceedings to prevent a vote.
Cloture: Terminating debate in the Senate.
Senatorial courtesy: Seeking approval from senators before appointing officials to their state.
Standing committee: Permanent committee focusing on a policy area.
Special/select committee: Committee created for a specific purpose.
Joint committee: Members from both houses, overseeing the Library of Congress and conducting investigations.
Earmarks: Special spending projects for constituents.
Seniority rule: Chair assigned to the member with the longest service on the committee.
Conference committee: Adjusts differences in a bill.
Delegate: Represents constituents' views.
Trustee: Votes independently based on judgment.
Logrolling: Vote trading among legislators.
Discharge petition: Pries a bill from committee.
Rider: Provision attached to a bill to secure its passage or defeat.
Pocket veto: Veto after Congress adjourns.
Override: Congress reverses a presidential veto with a two-thirds majority.

Executive Branch

Parliamentary system: Legislature selects the prime minister/president.
Presidential ticket: Joint listing of presidential/vice-presidential candidates.
Treaty: Agreement between the U.S. and other nations, approved by the Senate.
Executive agreement: Agreement between the U.S. president and leaders of other nations, without Senate approval.
Congressional-executive agreement: Agreement approved by both houses of Congress.
Take care clause: Presidents must ensure laws are faithfully executed.
State of the Union Address: President's annual statement to Congress and the nation.
Line item veto: Presidential power to strike specific items from a spending bill (declared unconstitutional).
Chief of staff: Head of the White House staff.
Executive Office of the President: Staff agencies helping the president.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB): Clearinghouse for budgetary requests.
Cabinet: Advisory council for the president.
Rally point: Rising public approval after a crisis.
Mandate: President's claim of broad public support.
Cycle of decreasing influence: Presidents lose support over time.
Cycle of increasing effectiveness: Presidents learn more about their jobs over time.

Federal Administrative System

Bureaucracy: Organization operating through uniform rules/procedures.
Bureaucrat: A career government employee.
Department: Largest organization in government.
Independent agency: Independent of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Independent regulatory commission: Agency with regulatory power protected by Congress.
Government corporation: Agency operating like a business corporation.
Senior Executive Service: Flexible corps of senior career executives.
Spoils system: Public employment based on rewarding loyalists/friends.
Merit system: Employment based on demonstrated performance.
Office of Personnel Management (OPM): Administers civil service laws.
Hatch Act: Bars federal employees from active political participation.
Implementation: Putting a law into practice through rules/spending.
Administrative discretion: Authority to use judgment in implementing laws.
Regulations: Formal instructions for implementing laws.
Rule-making process: Formal process for making regulations.
Uncontrollable spending: Spending on programs hard to cut.
Entitlement programs: Benefits to all eligible citizens.
Indexing: Automatic increases to compensate for inflation.
Oversight: Legislative/executive review of government programs.
Central clearance: OMB review of executive branch communications to Congress.

Judicial System

Adversary system: A neutral arena where two parties argue their differences.
Criminal law: Defines crimes against public order.
Civil law: Governs relationships between individuals.
Justiciable dispute: Dispute capable of legal settlement.
Defendant: The accused in a criminal action.
Plea bargain: Defendant pleads guilty to a lesser offense.
Public defender system: Legal assistance for those unable to hire attorneys.
Original jurisdiction: Authority to hear a case "in the first instance."
Appellate jurisdiction: Authority to review lower court decisions.
Court of appeals: Court hearing appeals from lower courts.
Precedent: Higher court decision binding on lower courts.
Writ of habeas corpus: Explanation to a judge why a prisoner is being held.
Judicial restraint: Interpreting the Constitution based on framers' intent.
Judicial activism: Interpreting the Constitution based on current conditions.
Stare decisis: The rule of precedent being binding.
Writ of certiorari: Formal writ bringing a case before the Supreme Court.
Docket: List of potential cases for the Supreme Court.
Opinion of the Court: Explanation of a court decision.
Dissenting opinion: Disagreement with the majority ruling.
Concurring opinion: Agreement with the majority but differing reasoning.

Constitution and Amendments

Ex post facto law: Retroactive criminal law to the disadvantage of a person.
Bill of attainder: Punishment without a trial.
Due process clause: Limits government power.
Selective incorporation: Applying the Bill of Rights to state/local governments.
Establishment clause: No law respecting an establishment of religion.
Vouchers: Money for parents to pay for tuition.
Free exercise clause: No law prohibiting free exercise of religion.
Bad tendency test: Forbidding speech encouraging illegal action.
Clear and present danger test: Government can't interfere with speech unless it presents a clear danger.
Preferred position doctrine: Freedom of expression is essential to democracy.
Nonprotected speech: Libel, obscenity, fighting words, and commercial speech.
Libel: Written defamation.
Sedition: Attempting to overthrow the government.
Obscenity: Appeals to prurient interest in sex and lacks value.
Fighting words: Inflict injury or incite violence.
Commercial speech: Advertisements (less protected).
Prior restraint: Censorship before speech (usually unconstitutional).
Civil disobedience: Refusal to obey laws to express opposition.
Naturalization: Conferring citizenship.
Dual citizenship: Citizenship in more than one nation.
Right of expatriation: Renouncing citizenship.
Property rights: Rights to own, use, and sell property.
Contract clause: Originally prohibited states from modifying contracts.
Police powers: State powers to protect public health/safety.
Eminent domain: Government can take private property for public use with compensation.
Regulatory taking: Regulation so extensive that government must compensate owners.
Due process: Rules restraining government officials.
Procedural due process: Limits how government may exercise power.
Substantive due process: Limits what government may do.
Search warrant: Authorizes police to search a place/person.
Racial profiling: Targeting minorities as suspects.
Exclusionary rule: Illegally obtained evidence excluded from the trial.
Immunity: Exemption from prosecution in return for testimony.
Grand jury: Hears evidence to determine if a trial is required.
Indictment: A formal charge.
Petit jury: Determines guilt or innocence.
Double jeopardy: Trial for the same crime (forbidden).
Community policing: Assigning police to work with communities.

Equal Rights and Protections

Affirmative action: Overcoming effects of discrimination.
Women’s suffrage: Right to vote for women.
Equal protection clause: No state can deny equal protection under the law.
White primary: Primary elections limited to white people (unconstitutional).
Racial gerrymandering: Drawing districts to ensure racial minorities are a minority (unconstitutional).
Poll tax: Tax required to vote (unconstitutional).
Literacy test: Literacy requirements for voting (illegal).
Majority-minority district: District with a majority of minority voters.
Jim Crow laws: Segregation laws (unconstitutional).
De jure segregation: Segregation by law.
De facto segregation: Segregation resulting from social/economic conditions.
Class action suit: Lawsuit on behalf of all similarly situated people.
Restrictive covenant: Prohibiting sale to a particular race/religion (unenforceable).

Economic and Regulatory Policies

Public policy: Government action to achieve a public goal.
Policy agenda: Issues Congress and the president consider important.
Distributive policy: Provides benefits to all Americans.
Redistributive policy: Takes benefits from one group and gives to another.
Rule: Legal definition of how government implements policy.
Iron triangle: Alliance among a committee, an interest group, and a federal agency.
Issue network: Alliance among loosely connected participants.
Fiscal policy: Managing the economy through taxing and spending.
Monetary policy: Managing the economy by controlling the money supply/interest rates.
Inflation: Rise in the general price level.
Unemployment: Number of Americans out of work but looking.
Excise tax: Tax on specific merchandise.
Deficit: Difference between revenue and expenditures.
Tariff: Tax on imports.
Progressive tax: Higher incomes pay a larger fraction.
Regressive tax: Lower incomes pay a higher fraction.
National debt: Total money the federal government has borrowed.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO): Analyzes presidential budget recommendations.
Sales tax: General tax on sales transactions.
Value-added tax (VAT): Tax on increased value at each production stage.
Tax expenditure: Loss of revenue due to tax incentives.
Monetarism: Controlling the money supply to encourage growth.
Federal Reserve System: Regulates currency and credit.
Trade deficit: Imports exceed exports.
World Trade Organization (WTO): Promotes free trade.
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): International trade organization.
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA): Free trade zone (US, Canada, Mexico).
Protectionism: Erecting trade barriers.
Offshoring: Exporting U.S. jobs.
Regulation: Altering markets to achieve social goals.
Trust: Monopoly controlling goods/services.
Union shop: New employees must join a union.
Labor injunction: Court order forbidding certain acts.
Collective bargaining: Union and employer negotiate wages/conditions.
Environmental impact statement: Assessing the environmental impact of projects.
Deregulation: Reducing Federal regulation.

Social and Foreign Policies

Unfunded mandates: Federal requirements without Federal funding.
Entitlements: Programs providing benefits to all eligible citizens.
Means-tested entitlements: Programs based on need.
Public assistance: Aid to the poor (welfare).
Social insurance: Eligibility based on prior contributions.
Social Security: Entitlement programs for retirement, health, and disability.
Medicare: National Health Insurance for the elderly and disabled.
Medicaid: Medical benefits for low-income persons.
Health maintenance organization (HMO): Set amount charged, coverage provided.
Medical savings account: Tax-deductible accounts for medical expenses.
Realism: Nations operate from self-interest.
Idealism: Nations act together for peace.
Isolationism: Avoiding entanglement.
Internationalism: Engaging in problem-solving.
Unilateralism: Acting alone when facing threats.
Bush Doctrine: Attacking nations with weapons of mass destruction.
Multilateralism: Nations acting together.
Hard power: Relying on economic/military strength.
Soft power: Relying on diplomacy.
Theory of deterrence: Creating military strength to prevent attacks.
Weapons of mass destruction: Biological, chemical, or nuclear weapons.
Normal trade relations: Favorable trade concessions.
National Intelligence Director: Oversees intelligence agencies.
Bipartisanship: Cooperation between parties.
Economic sanctions: Denying relations to change policies.