Chapter 5: Conditioning and Learning

Chapter 5: Classical Conditioning and Related Theories

1. Stimulus-Substitution vs. Preparatory Response

  • Stimulus-Substitution Theory:

    • In this theory, the Conditioned Stimulus (CS) takes the place of the Unconditioned Stimulus (US) and elicits the same response.
    • Example:
    • Bell (CS) leads to Salivation (Conditioned Response - CR), similar to the way food (US) elicits salivation (Unconditioned Response - UR).

  • Preparatory Response:

    • Suggests that the CR prepares the organism's body for the US rather than simply mimicking the UR.
    • Example:
    • The sound of a bell (CS) leads to salivation (CR) in anticipation of food (US).
    • Advantage: The CR can often be different from the UR, suggesting a complex preparation strategy rather than mere mimicry.
    • Memory Aspect:
    • CS conditions the body in anticipation of the US.

2. Compensatory Response Model

  • Involves the body's learned responses that help to counteract the effects of a drug when cues linked to the drug are present.
  • Example:
    • The drug room (CS) triggers the body to prepare to counteract the drug effects (CR), thereby influencing the risk of overdose.
    • Explanation:
    • If a drug is consumed in an unfamiliar environment (new place), or if associated cues are missing, the body's defenses are unprepared, significantly increasing the risk of overdose.
    • Memory Aspect:
    • The conditioning related to drug cues helps the body to prepare against drug intake effects.

3. Rescorla-Wagner Theory

  • Key Principle:

    • Learning occurs primarily when a US is unexpected; if it is anticipated, little to no learning happens.

  • Blocking Effect:

    • Existing learning (old CS) inhibits the learning of new associations with a new CS.
    • Example:
    • Light (CS1) leads to food (US), then adding a tone (CS2) with the light will not lead to a new learning association if the light has already conditioned the expectation of food.

  • Overexpectation Effect:

    • When two strong CS's predict more reward than received, the result can weaken memory.
    • Memory Aspect:
    • Excessive expectations can lead to decreased learning outcomes.

4. Little Albert Experiment

  • Procedure:

    • A rat (neutral stimulus - NS) was paired with a loud noise (unconditioned stimulus - US) to induce fear.
    • After Conditioning:
    • Rat (now CS) leads to Fear (Conditioned Response - CR).

  • Weaknesses of the Experiment:

    • Limited to only one child as a subject, raising issues of generalizability.
    • Ethical concerns regarding the inducing of fear.
    • The conditioned fear response was not subsequently removed or desensitized.
    • Memory Aspect:
    • The association of rat + noise leads to fear.

5. Observational Learning of Phobia

  • Children can learn fears by observing the fearful reactions of others.
  • Example:
    • Exposure to a mouse (NS) along with a parent's observable fear (observational stimulus - OS) can lead to the child developing a fear response.
    • After Learning:
    • Mouse (CS) triggers fear (CR) in the child.
    • Memory Aspect:
    • The phenomenon of seeing fear in others translates to learning fearful responses.

6. Temperament vs. Preparedness

  • Temperament (T):

    • Refers to individual personality traits that may predispose a person to develop specific fears.
    • Example:
    • A naturally anxious child may be more likely to develop various fears.

  • Preparedness (P):

    • Refers to the biological predisposition to fear certain things relevant to human evolution (e.g., snakes, spiders).
    • Memory Aspect:
    • T emphasizes personality while P emphasizes evolutionary context.

7. Incubation, Selective Sensitization, US Re-evaluation

  • Incubation:

    • The process wherein fear responses become stronger over time.

  • Selective Sensitization:

    • Refers to the phenomenon where fear spreads to stimuli that are similar to the original fear-inducing stimulus.

  • US Re-evaluation:

    • The process involves changing perceptions regarding the intensity or threat level of the US, which can modify the existing fear.

8. Counterconditioning

  • A process that involves replacing a maladaptive response with a more adaptive or desirable response.

  • Example:

    • If a child is afraid of dogs, pairing the presence of the dog with positive experiences (e.g., treats, play) can help mitigate the fear.

  • Reciprocal Inhibition:

    • The principle that opposite emotional states cannot occur simultaneously; for instance, relaxation cannot coexist with anxiety.

9. Systematic Desensitization

  • A therapeutic technique involving gradual exposure to a feared stimulus while the individual is in a relaxed state.

  • Slow Flooding:

    • Involves immediate and intense exposure to the fear stimulus until a level of fear decreases.
    • This technique addresses fear responses all at once.

10. Aversion Therapy

  • A behavioral technique that pairs a certain behavior with an unpleasant consequence to deter the behavior.

  • Example:

    • A person can experience nausea when drinking alcohol, which is induced through pairing alcohol consumption with discomfort.

  • Covert Sensitization:

    • Involves imagining unpleasant outcomes related to certain behaviors instead of experiencing them directly.
    • Comparison:
    • Nausea as a reaction often proves more effective than electric shock because it creates a stronger, longer-lasting aversion to the behavior being modified.

11. Conditioning the Immune System

  • Phase I:

    • Initially, the administration of medicine (US) prompts the body to fight illness (UR).

  • Phase II:

    • After consistently pairing medicine with a specific cue (orange juice), the orange juice (now CS) leads the body to prepare to fight illness even in the absence of the medicine.

  • Memory Aspect:

    • The body's learned association results in an expectation that the cue indicates that it is time to heal.