LEC 19 – Africa and decolonization

Colonial Africa

  • North Africa/Sub-Saharan Africa Distinct: North Africa and sub-Saharan Africa have very different historical experiences with colonialism. North Africa, particularly regions like Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt, had experienced earlier periods of colonization and influence from the Ottoman Empire, as well as a long-standing history of interactions with European powers such as France and Italy. This allowed for more established colonial administration and infrastructure. In contrast, sub-Saharan Africa was largely colonized during the late 19th and early 20th centuries during the so-called "Scramble for Africa" by European powers such as Britain, France, Germany, Portugal, and Belgium. The colonization of sub-Saharan Africa was rapid and driven by the search for resources, leading to the establishment of artificial borders and the exploitation of resources with limited development.

  • Development Limited: Colonial powers primarily focused on extracting resources from their African colonies, often neglecting the development of infrastructure, education, and healthcare. This lack of investment stunted the growth and development of African societies, leaving them economically dependent on their colonial rulers. Colonial societies were often structured around maintaining control and order, with a heavy reliance on African military forces for enforcing colonial policies and quelling resistance.

  • Most of Africa Granted Independence c. 1960: The decolonization process accelerated after World War II, as European powers were weakened and faced pressure to relinquish their colonies. This culminated in the "Year of Africa" in 1960, when many African nations gained independence. These newly independent states faced the challenge of building nation-states from diverse populations with differing ethnic, linguistic, and cultural backgrounds, often within arbitrary colonial borders.

Conflicts in Africa

  • Most Conflicts Were Internal: Post-independence conflicts in Africa often stemmed from internal issues such as ethnic divisions, power struggles, and competition for resources. These conflicts were exacerbated by the legacy of colonial rule, which left many African states with weak institutions and governance challenges. As newly independent states sought to assert their sovereignty, tensions arose within and between various groups, leading to internal conflicts.

  • Soviet Policy Shifted Toward Supporting National Liberation Movements: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union sought to expand its influence in Africa by supporting national liberation movements against Western-backed regimes or colonial powers. The Soviets provided financial, military, and logistical support to these movements, aiming to establish allies and spread socialist ideology on the continent.

The Algerian War of Independence (1954-62)

  • France Was in Weak Position by 1954, but Algeria Different than Its Colonies: By the 1950s, France was still recovering from World War II and its defeat in the First Indochina War. This left the country in a weakened position to deal with the growing nationalist movement in Algeria. Algeria was different from other French colonies because it was considered an integral part of France, not a colony, due to its large settler population. This connection made the conflict more complex, as many in France saw Algeria as an extension of their country rather than a separate colony.

  • FLN Brought Varied Parties Together to Attack Military, then Civilian Targets: The FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) was the main nationalist movement in Algeria, bringing together a variety of political and social groups united in their goal of ending French rule. The FLN adopted a strategy of guerrilla warfare, targeting both military and civilian targets to weaken French control and gain international attention for their cause.

  • French Military Success: Initially, French military forces managed to suppress the FLN's resistance in major cities such as Algiers and limit its influence in the countryside. The French used methods such as torture and counterinsurgency operations to maintain control over the population.

  • ...French Political Defeat: Despite military successes, France faced significant political challenges. The harsh measures used by French forces drew international condemnation and alienated public opinion both in France and abroad. Additionally, growing opposition within France to the war led to a lack of political will to continue the conflict, ultimately leading to French withdrawal and Algerian independence.

  • Withdrawal Caused Major Upheavals in Algeria and in France: The withdrawal of French forces from Algeria led to significant upheaval in both Algeria and France. In Algeria, the power vacuum left by the departing French led to internal struggles and violence as different factions vied for control. In France, the loss of Algeria and the end of the war caused political turmoil and shifts in the country's domestic landscape.

  • Algerian Victory Encouraged Violent Socialist Anti-Colonial Movements Everywhere: The successful Algerian struggle for independence inspired other anti-colonial movements worldwide, particularly those with socialist leanings. It demonstrated that even well-established colonial powers could be defeated, emboldening other nationalist groups seeking independence.

The Problem of Independence in Sub-Saharan Africa

  • Colonies in Sub-Saharan Africa, like the Belgian Congo, Were Not Able to Function as Countries: Sub-Saharan African countries faced challenges in forming cohesive and stable nation-states due to the arbitrary colonial borders that did not account for ethnic, linguistic, and cultural divisions. Countries like the Belgian Congo, which became the Democratic Republic of the Congo, struggled with these divisions, leading to conflicts and challenges in governance.

  • Foreign Powers Intervened There, and Elsewhere: External powers often intervened in sub-Saharan Africa, either to support particular factions or to pursue their own strategic interests. This intervention often complicated internal conflicts, as foreign backing could prolong and exacerbate disputes.

  • The Military Often Proved the Only Powerful Institution/Organization in Many Former Colonies: In many post-independence African countries, the military emerged as the dominant institution, filling the power vacuum left by departing colonial powers. The military often became the key decision-maker and enforcer of state policies, sometimes leading to coups and authoritarian rule.

The Cold War in Angola

  • Portugal Lacked the Resources and Will to Fight Insurgency Indefinitely: Portugal, unlike other European colonial powers, was determined to maintain its African colonies but lacked the resources and political will to sustain prolonged insurgencies in places like Angola. This eventually led to independence for Angola and other Portuguese colonies.

  • Independence Saw Years of Warfare Between Foreign Backed Movements: After gaining independence, Angola faced prolonged conflict as various factions, backed by foreign powers (including the Soviet Union, Cuba, and the United States), fought for control. This external involvement made the conflict more complex and drawn-out.

Rhodesia: Light Infantry and COIN

  • Liberation Political Movements Bled into Rhodesia: The influence of liberation movements across Africa, particularly in neighboring countries, affected Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). These movements challenged the white-minority rule and apartheid system in Rhodesia, leading to internal strife.

  • The Rhodesian Army Proved Effective in Countering Insurgents: The Rhodesian army implemented effective counterinsurgency tactics, including the use of light infantry units and specialized operations. While they were successful in the short term, their methods drew international criticism and ultimately did not sustain the political system.

  • ...But Apartheid Was Not a Viable Political System: Despite the military's success, Rhodesia's apartheid system faced growing international pressure and condemnation. This, coupled with internal opposition and changing regional dynamics, eventually led to the collapse of the system.

Civil War in Nigeria

  • Nigeria Suffered from the Same Issues as Other New African States: Nigeria faced similar challenges as other newly independent African states, including issues related to state formation, ethnic divisions, and weak institutions. These challenges culminated in a civil war (the Nigerian Civil War, also known as the Biafran War) from 1967 to 1970.

  • The War Became a Blockade/Siege: The Nigerian Civil War was marked by the attempt of the eastern region to secede and form the Republic of Biafra. This led to a prolonged conflict, including a blockade and siege of the Biafran territory, resulting in significant loss of life and humanitarian crises.

Conclusion

  • Colonial Rearguards Lacked the Political Will/Conditions to Maintain European Rule Even When Militarily Successful: Although colonial powers sometimes achieved military success in suppressing resistance, they often lacked the political will and conditions necessary to sustain their rule. Domestic opposition, international pressure, and changing attitudes in Europe all contributed to the eventual withdrawal of colonial powers.

  • The Algerian War of Independence Was a Catalyst to Violent Anti-Colonial Socialist Movements: The Algerian War of Independence served as a catalyst for other anti-colonial movements, particularly those with socialist leanings. The success of the FLN inspired similar movements across the globe, providing a model for challenging colonial powers.

  • Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa Were Often Internal, and Related to State Formation and Weak Institutions: In sub-Saharan Africa, many conflicts stemmed from internal issues related to state formation, governance challenges, and weak institutions. The legacy of colonial borders and divisions further complicated these issues.

  • Conflicts Were Often Drawn Out and Influenced by Weak States, Outside Forces – Who Reaped Little from Their Efforts: Many conflicts in Africa were prolonged due to weak state structures and the influence of external powers. These powers often intervened for strategic or ideological reasons but rarely achieved significant benefits from their efforts.