AP PSYCH VOCAB

Unit 1 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Empiricism	The idea that what we know comes from experience and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge	I used empiricism to learn how to ride a bike.
Structuralism	Early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener. Uses introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind	I used structuralism to figure out how the human mind works.
Functionalism	Explored how mental and behavioral processes function -- how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish	I used functionalism to figure out how college students adapt when they first get there.
Experimental psychology	The study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method	I used experimental psychology to try to figure out why certain people learn better with music.
Behaviorism	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)	Pavlov experimented with behaviorism when he conducted his experiment with the dog.
Humanistic psychology	A historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people	A humanistic psychologist believed that I wasn’t living up to my full potential and needed to work harder.
Cognitive psychology	Scientifically explore the ways we perceive, process, and remember information.	I used cognitive psychology to figure out why we think the way that we do.
psychology	The science of behavior and mental science	Psychology is an extremely interesting topic due to it exploring behavior and mental sciences.
Nature-nurture issue	The longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.	The nature and nurture argument was a major topic of discussion about whether our biological aspects or our environment influences us more.
Natural Selection	Created by Charles Darwin which explained the species variation in different regions. The principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.	Charles Darwin created the idea of natural selection which explains why certain animals change biologically over time.
Levels of analysis	The differing complementary views from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon	I use the levels of analysis to analyze what problem is going on with my patient.
Biopsychosocial approach	An integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis	The biopsychosocial approach is very useful because it includes many different aspects that can be used to decipher different mental problems.
Behavioral psychology	The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.	Pavlov used behavioral psychology to observe what was happening with his dog during his experiment.
Biological psychology	The scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes	I used biological psychology to determine that depression was caused by an imbalance in brain chemicals.
Cognitive psychology	Experiment with how we perceive, think, and solve problems	I used cognitive psychology to figure out how people solve brain teasers.
Evolutionary psychology	The study of the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection	I used evolutionary psychology to figure out the differences in behavior between people from 50 years ago and now.
Psychodynamic psychology	A branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders	I used psychodynamic psychology to determine that someone is depressed because of something traumatic that happened when they were 5 years old.
Social-cultural psychology	The study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking	I used social-cultural psychology to determine how Spanish culture influences their behavior.
psychometrics	The scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits	I used psychometrics to study different people’s traits.
Basic research	Pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base	I used basic research to learn more about my research topic.

Developmental psychology	Examines how people grow and change throughout the lifespan from prenatal to old age and death.	I used developmental psychology to figure out how someone as a child differs from how they were as an old man.
Educational psychology	A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span. Concerned with theoretical topics related to the teaching and learning process, i.e. memory, motivation, and all things related to improving cognitive learning skills	I used educational psychology to figure out how people remember certain topics while studying.
Personality psychology	The study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning. Developing personality tests, studying traits such as shyness, introversion, extroversion	I used personality psychology to make a personality test to determine which people are more introverted and which are more extroverted.
Social psychology	The study of an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.	I used social psychology to figure out how people changed to adapt to new environments.
Applied research	The scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.	I used applied research to determine how a bad influence can change others.
Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology	An I/O psychology subfield that uses psychology’s concepts and methods in the workplace to help companies select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, design products, and implement systems.	My company hired an industrial-organizational psychologist to help boost our workers’ morale.
Human factors psychology	An I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use.	I used human factors psychology to figure out how people and AI interact.
Counseling psychology	A branch of psychology that helps people adapt to change or to change.	I used counseling psychology to help me with my recent break up.
Clinical psychology	A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.	I used clinical psychology to study and treat depression.
Psychiatry	A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy.	I used psychiatry to prescribe someone some medicine or their disorder.
Positive psychology	The scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.	I used positive psychology to study and figure out how to help people thrive.
Community psychology	A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups.	I used community psychology to figure out how college students interact and how to make it more positive.
Testing effect	Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.	The testing effect allowed me to get a 100 on my actual test.
SQ3R	A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review	I used SQ3R to figure out what was the most popular studying method.
Wilhelm Wundt	Established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzing, Germany. Seeked to measure “Atoms of the mind.”	I met Wilhelm Wundt while working in his psychology laboratory.
G. Stanley Hall	William Wundt’s student who established the first psychological laboratory, at John Hopkins University.	G. Stanley Hall was a great student to Wilhelm Wundt, he even established the first psychology laboratory at John Hopkins.
William James	Philosopher-psychologist who thought it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings. Teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. Mentored Mary Whinton Calkins.	William James developed functionalism and mentored the first female APA president.
Mary Whiton Calkins	A pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association. Was denied a PhD at Harvard because of her gender and rejected a degree at Radcliffe College.	She was rejected from a degree from Harvard but was still able to become the first woman to become president of the APA.
Margaret Floy Washburn	The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D. Synthesized animal behavior research in The Animal Mind. The second female APA president in 1921.	Margret Floy Washburn was able to be the first woman to receive a Ph.D unlike Mary Whiton Calkins.
Sigmund Freud	Austrian psychologist who emphasized the ways emotional responses to childhood experiences and our unconscious thought processes affect our behavior. Thus, until the 1920s, psychology was defined as “the science of mental life.” Influenced humanity’s self-understanding. Fruedian psychology emphasized the ways our unconscious thought processes and our emotional responses to childhood experiences affect our behavior.	Freud created freudian psychology which is implemented in the psychodynamic perspective.

John B. Watson	Worked with Rayner and championed psychology as the science of behavior and demonstrated conditioned responses on a baby who became famous as “Little Albert.” Behaviorism. Rejected the “science of mental life” because he felt it was impossible to be scientific without observation.	John B. Watson focused heavily on Behaviorism which emphasizes observation especially with Little Albert.
B.F. Skinner	Dismissed introspection and redefined psychology as “the scientific study of observable behavior.” They said that science is rooted in observation. A leading behaviorist, Skinner rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.	Skinner felt that watching people was what psychology was.
Carl Rogers	Led the humanistic psychologists with Abraham Maslow. Believed that Freudian psychology and behaviorism were too limiting. He drew attention to ways that current environmental influences can nurture or limit our growth potential, and to the importance of having our needs for love and acceptance satisfied.	Carl Rogers wanted people to live to their potential and not limit ourselves.
Ivan Pavlov	Russian physiologist who pioneered the study of learning.	Pavlov was a major behaviorist who did the famous experiment, Pavlov’s dog.
Jean Piaget	A Swiss biologist who was the most influential observer of children.	Jean Piaget was extremely skilled at watching children.
Charles Darwin	Proposed the idea of natural selection which explained the species variation on different regions. From among chance variations, nature selects traits that best enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment. Biology’s organizing principle. Believed that natural selection shapes behaviors as well as bodies.	Charles Darwin was very important to biology due to his idea of natural selection and survival of the fittest.
Dorothea Dix	Led the way to humane treatment of those with psychological disorders. Advocate for the mentally ill and created and expanded over 30 mental hospitals.	Dorothea Dix was extremely helpful for people with mental disorders especially since she built/renovated over 30 mental hospitals.

Unit 2 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Biological psychology	the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes. (Some biological psychologists call themselves behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists.)	I used biological psychology to figure out what ways drugs affect the brain.
Neuron	a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system.	We have many neurons in our body.
Dendrites	a neuron’s bushy, branching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.	The dendrites are taking our messages and giving them to the cell body.
Axon	the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands.	The axon is passing the dendrite’s message to my muscles.
Myelin sheath	a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one sausage-like node to the next.	The myelin sheath is a facilitator.
Action potential	a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon.	The action potential ran down the axon.
Refractory period	a period of inactivity after a neuron has fired.	My neuron just fired and it is now in its refractory period.
threshold	the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.	The impulse happened due to it crossing the threshold.
All-or-none response	a neuron’s reaction of either firing (with a full strength response) or not firing.	The neuron decided not to fire due to the all-or-none response.
synapse	the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft.	The neurotransmitters crossed the synapse.
neurotransmitters	chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse	The sending neuron released its neurotransmitters and caused a neural impulse to happen.
reuptake	a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron	The neurotransmitter got reabsorbed through the reuptake.
endorphins	“morphine within”—natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.	My endorphins were released when I got hit with a soccer ball.
agonist	a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response.	The agonist made the receptor respond.
antagonist	a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, inhibits or blocks a response	The antagonist stopped the receptor from firing.
Nervous system	the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems.	The nervous system is extremely complex and gigantic.
Central nervous system	the brain and spinal cord. The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body	The central nervous system is all over our body.

Nerves	bundled axons that form neural “cables” connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs	Nerves make up the wiring of our nervous system.
Sensory (afferent) neurons	neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord.	The sensory afferent neurons carry sensory information.
Motor (efferent) neurons	neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands	The motor efferent neurons carry actions.
Interneurons	neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs	Interneurons are constantly communicating with the sensory inputs and motor outputs.
Somatic nervous system	the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system.	The somatic nervous system controls muscles.
Autonomic nervous system	the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.	The autonomic nervous system makes you excited and calm.
Sympathetic nervous system	The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.	The sympathetic nervous system is related to fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system	the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.	The parasympathetic nervous system is related to rest and digest.
Reflex	a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response.	When I kick someone automatically, it is a reflex.
Endocrine system	the body’s “slow” chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.	The endocrine system is slow and focuses on getting hormones in the bloodstream.
Hormones	chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues	Hormones are transferred using the endocrine glands through
Adrenal glands	a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.	Adrenal glands create hormones that makes the body alert in times of stress.
Pituitary glands	the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.	Pituitary glands are the control center.
lesion	tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.	A lesion when something destroys brain tissue.
electroencephalogram	an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp	Electroencephalograms shows the electrical activity of the brain.
CT (computerized tomography) scan	a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain’s structure. (Also called a CAT scan.)	A CT or CAT scan is not a real cat, but 2d pictures of the brain stacked together.
PET (positron emission tomography) scan	a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.	PET scans are also not real pets, but are not used very much because they are almost as dangerous as them when used multiple times.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)	a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.	MRI machines show different slices of the brain.
fMRI (functional MRI)	a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function as well as its structure.	fMRI machines are multiple MRI scans on top of each other.
brainstem	the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.	The brainstem makes sure that you survive.

medulla	the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing.	Medulla keeps you alive.
thalamus	the brain’s sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.	Thalamus focuses on your senses.
Reticular formation	a nerve network that travels through the brainstem and thalamus and plays an important role in controlling arousal.	The reticular formation makes sure you don’t get too excited.
cerebellum	the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory.	The cerebellum makes sure that you remember things.
Limbic system	neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.	The limbic system makes you emotional and makes sure to let you know when you need things like food.
amygdala	two lima-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion	The amygdala deals with strong emotions.
hypothalamus	a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.	The hypothalamus makes sure to let you know when you are hungry.
Cerebral cortex	the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information-processing center.	The cerebral cortex tells you all the information you need.

Glial cells	Cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking.	Glial cells help your neurons stay safe and happy.
Frontal lobes	portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments.	Frontal lobes help you the talk and decide things.
Parietal lobes	portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position.	Parietal lobes let you know about what is around you.
Occipital lobes	portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields.	Occipital lobes let you see the world.
Temporal lobes	portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear.	The temporal lobes hear everything.
Motor cortex	an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.	The motor cortex allows you to play soccer.
Somatosensory cortex	Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.	The somatosensory cortex tells you what is around you.
Association areas	Areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking.	My association areas help me to talk to my dog.

Plasticity	the brain’s ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience	I had to remove part of my brain as a kid and due to its plasticity, it didn’t impact me a lot.
neurogenesis	the formation of new neurons.	Neurogenesis created new neurons to help me function.
Corpus callosum	the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.	Without corpus callosum, you would have a split brain.
Split brain	a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain’s two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.	I have split brain and now when I see things out of only my left eye, I can’t say what I see.
consciousness	our awareness of ourselves and our environment.	I lost consciousness when I passed out.
Cognitive neuroscience	the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).	I used cognitive neuroscience to figure out how people think.
Dual processing	the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.	I used dual processing to multitask.
Behavior genetics	the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.	I studied behavior genetics and learned how genetics can influence people.

Environment	every external influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.	I was born in a good environment.
chromosomes	threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.	My chromosomes contain all of my DNA.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)	a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.	DNA influences every part of us.
genes	the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins.	My genes create my chromosomes which contain my DNA which make up all aspects of me.
genome	the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.	When creating a baby, they have to follow it’s genome.
Identical twins	twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms.	I was friends with a pair of identical twins who looked exactly alike.
Fraternal twins	twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment	I met some fraternal twins who didn’t look alike but had the same birthday.
Molecular genetics	the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes.	I studied molecular genetics to figure out what my genes look like and how they work.

heritability	the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.	We looked into the heritability of black hair for my siblings.
interaction	the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity).	Interaction is very important when considering the nature vs. nurture argument.
epigenetics	the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change.	I studied epigenetics and learned all about changes in DNA.
Evolutionary psychology	the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.	I learned about natural selection’s influence on evolutionary psychology.
Natural selection	the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.	I learned about Charles Darwins discovery of natural selection and survival of the fittest.
mutation	n a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.	There was a mutation that caused cancer in my genes.
Paul Broca	Discovered Broca’s area and Broca’s aphasia. Broca’s aphasia creates broken speech where you can understand others but your words are disjointed.	I met Paul Broca who told me that people with Broca’s aphasia damaged their Broca’s area and can’t speak clearly.
Carl Wernicke	Discovered Wernicke’s area where if it is damaged, the person has Wernicke’s aphasia and struggles to comprehend speech.	Carl Wernicke discovered Wernicke’s aphasia which my friend also has because we can not understand or comprehend them because it just sounds like random words.

Roger Sperry	Experimented on the brains of cats and monkeys to figure out how split brains work.	Roger Sperry discovered that due to plasticity, even if you split the brain, there wasn’t any serious ill effect.
Michael Gazzaniga	Experimented on the brains of cats and monkeys to figure out how split brains work.	Michael Gazzaniga discovered that patients with split brains were surprisingly normal.
Charles Darwin	Developed natural selection that talked about how genes that most contribute to survival will be more likely to be passed down.	Charles Darwin discovered that in a dark forest, there would be more darker colored mice than lighter colored due to natural selection.
Hypnosis	a social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person’s (the hypnotist’s) suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur	I was under hypnosis and it made me relax.
Posthypnotic suggestion	a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.	I had a posthypnotic suggestion of not drinking and driving and now it never happens.
dissociation	a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.	I was dissociated during the conversation.
Circadian rhythm	the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.	My circadian rhythm woke me up today.

REM sleep	rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.	I was in REM sleep and no one was able to wake me up.
Alpha waves	the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.	I produced alpha waves during my non-REM 1 sleep.
sleep	periodic, natural loss of consciousness—as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation	I went to sleep late last night and went through all of the NREM cycles but woke during my REM cycle and was groggy.
hallucinations	false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.	I hallucinated that spongebob was in my house cooking krabby patties.
Delta waves	the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep	During my NREM 3 stage of sleep I was producing delta waves.
NREM sleep	non–rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.	I went through all 3 stages of NREM sleep and produced alpha, theta, and delta waves.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)	a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.	I was on my phone all night which confused my suprachiasmatic nucleus and I couldn’t fall asleep.
insomnia	recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.	I had insomnia so I couldn’t fall alseep at all last night.

Narcolepsy	a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.	I suddently fell asleep during class due to my narcolepsy.
Sleep apnea	a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.	I have sleep apnea which caused me to stop breathing last night.
Night terrors	a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during NREM-3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.	Due to my night terrors I screamed at my sister but didn’t remember it in the morning.
dreams	a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer’s delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it.	I often have dreams of being a billionare.
Manifest content	according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).	I remembered the manifest content of my dream.
Latent content	according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content).	I was told that my dream of being a billionare’s latent content was that I wanted to be rich.
REM rebound	the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep).	I didn’t go through my REM sleep last night so I had REM rebound and was in REM sleep for 120 mins.
Substance use disorder	continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.	My doctor told me that I had a substance use disorder because even though my family abandoned me because of my drug addiction, I still want to do it no matter what.

Psychoactive drug	a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.	I took a psychoactive drug which made me really mad.
tolerance	the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug’s effect.	I was told I had a coffee tolerance because when I took 2 coffees I was greatly affected, but after some time passed, I started to need 3 or 4 to have the same effect.
addiction	compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors (such as gambling) despite known adverse consequences	I have an addiction because I keep wanting to drink no matter where I am even though I know it’s bad for me.
withdrawal	the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior.	When I stopped drinking,
depressants	drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions.	I took a depressant and was very relaxed and slow.
Alcohol use disorder	Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.	I keep wanting to drink even though my family hates it and it harms my body especially because of the withdrawal symptoms I get when I don’t drink.
barbiturates	drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.	I took a barbiturate and my family did not allow me to drive after claiming that my judgment was impaired.
opiates	opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.	I was put on opiates for my pain and was very dizzy and tired.

Stimulants	drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, Ecstasy, and methamphetamine) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.	I drank caffeine and was extremely hyper the entire day.
Amphetamines	drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes.	I took amphetamines which gave me a boost of energy.
Nicotine	a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.	The nicotine in my cigarette got me addicted and now I can’t stop smoking.
Cocaine	a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.	I did cocaine and it made me have faster reflexes.
methamphetamine	a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.	I took methamphetamine and started moving quicker and seeming more hyper.
ecstasy	a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.	I took ecstasy and started to hallucinate.
hallucinogens	psychedelic (“mind-manifesting”) drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input.	When I took hallucinogens I would hallucinate a lot.
LSD	a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide).	I took LSD and had strong hallucinations.

Near-death experience	an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as by cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations.	I had a near death experience and my friends said I was extremely out of it.
THC	the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.	I smoked marijuana and the THC in it caused hallucinations.
William James	Discovered a continuous stream of consciousness with each moment flowing into the next.	I learned from William James about how my consciousness works.
Ernest Hilgard	Believed that hypnosis involves social influence and dissociation which is a split between different levels of consciousness.	When I watched someone under hypnosis I realized that they were as Ernest Hilgard said in a state of dissociation.
Sigmund Freud	Believed that a dream’s manifest content was censored and the latent content was about unconscious drives and wishes.	When I dreamed about being a billionaire, I woke up and realized that it was as Sigmund Freud said and it was my latent content.

Unit 3 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Sensation	the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.	I used sensation to feel my dog’s fur.
Perception	the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events.	I used perception to figure out that there was a horse in front of me.
Bottom-up processing	analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.	I used bottom-up processing to figure out that what I was touching was dog fur.
Top-down Processing	information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations.	When I closed my eyes and touched something, I realized that it was a dog because I remembered it from last week.
Selective attention	the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.	I used my selective attention to focus on my homework instead of the music.
Inattentional Blindness	failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere.	I had inattentional blindness and didn’t realize my cup was about to fall onto the floor while is was talking on the phone.
Change Blindness	failing to notice changes in the environment.	While I was focusing on my homework, I didn’t realize that my mom left the room.
Transduction	conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret.	I used transduction to hear my music.
Psychophysics	the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them.	I studied psychophysics and learned about how the intensity of light affects our perception.
Absolute threshold	the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.	My absolute threshold was being able to hear a train from 1 mile away
Signal detection theory	a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.	Due to signal detection theory, I was able to hear a pin drop because of my alertness.
subliminal	below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.	I was not able to hear my father call me from upstairs because the sound was subliminal.
priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one’s perception, memory, or response.	I used priming to make my dog come for food when I rang a bell.
Difference threshold	the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference	Due to my difference threshold, I was able to see a difference between two similar colors while my sister was not.
Weber’s law	the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount).	When I thought about difference threshold I thought about Weber’s law.
Sensory adaptation	diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.	After sitting on a lumpy couch for an hour I didn’t realize the lumps as much.
Perceptual set	a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.	Due to my perceptual set, I realized the color change from green to purple but not red to orange.
Extrasensory perception (ESP)	the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition.	Due to my extrasensory perception, I was able to know what was going to happen without using my senses.
Parapsychology	the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis.	I used Parapsuchology to study ghosts.

Wavelength	the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission.	The wavelength of my light wave was smaller than my sound wave.
hue	the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.	The hue of my couch is blue.
intensity	the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave’s amplitude.	The intensity of my soundwave made my music sound loud.
pupil	the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters	My pupil let light through it so I could see my image.
iris	a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening.	My iris relaxed and allowed my pupil to get bigger.
lens	the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.	I use my lens to focus when I read my book.
retina	the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information.	I use my retina to see in the dark.
accommodation	the process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina.	I used accommodation to see my phone right in front of my eyes.
rods	retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don’t respond.	I used my rods to see in the dark.
cones	retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.	When I was looking at a tree I noticed that it was green and realized that I was using my cones.
Optic nerve	the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.	My Optic nerve was working hard when I was watching TV.
Blind spot	the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot because no receptor cells are located there.	When I looked at my finger, when it was missing I realized that it was in my blind spot.
fovea	the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.	My fovea allowed me to see better.
Feature detectors	nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.	My feature detectors allowed me to see the lines, edges, curves, and other features of my dog.
Parallel processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	I used parallel processing during my soccer game so that I could play well.
Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory	the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.	When I looked at purple I realized that it could be made from red and blue which made me trust in the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory.
Opponent-Process theory	the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green.	When after the red disappeared and I saw green, I realized that it was the opponent-process theory.
gestalt	an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.	While looking around I used gestalt principles to recognize different patterns.
figure-ground	the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).	When I saw chess pieces and then saw a person I realized that it was figure-ground.
grouping	the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups.	When I saw different triangles and just put them together in a group I realized that I was doing grouping.

Depth perception	the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance.	When I realized that I was in a parking space, I realized that I was using depth perception.
Visual cliff	a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals.	When the child didn’t walk over the edge and we found out they had depth perception, I realized that they were using a visual cliff.
Binocular cues	depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes.	When I realized the difference between two objects, I realized that I was using binocular cues.
Retinal disparity	a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance— the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.	When I looked at something with both of my eyes and could tell their depth, I realized that I was using retinal disparity.
Monocular cues	depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone.	When I closed one of my eyes and could gauge distance, I realized that I was using monocular cues.
Phi phenomenon	an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession.	When the circle was moving i a circle while it was just the lights blinking in succession, I realized that it was the Phi phenomenon.
Perceptual constancy	perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, size, brightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change.	When i opened the door but still thought that it was a rectangle, I realized that I was using perceptual constancy.
Color constancy	perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object.	When I had a yellowish orange, I still believed that it was orange which was using color constancy.
Perceptual adaptation	in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field.	When I wore the goggles during class over time, I used perceptual adaptation to be able to move around in them.
audition	the sense or act of hearing.	When I heard my music I realized that I was using audition.
frequency	the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second).	When I looked at a light wave and saw how compact it was, I realized that I was looking at frequency.
pitch	a tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.	When I heard a shriek, I realized that it was high in pitch.
Middle ear	the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea’s oval window	When I learned about the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, I learned that they were located in the middle ear.
cochlea	a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses.	When I learned about implants, I learned that the cochlea implant goes in the cochlea.
Inner ear	the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs.	I put my cochlear implant in my inner ear.
Sensorineural hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness.	My dog has sensorineural hearing loss and is not able to hear me when I talk quietly.
Conduction hearing loss	hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea.	My dog had conduction hearing loss and his music sounds muffled to him.
Cochlear implant	a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea.	My brother had a cochlear implant and was able to hear me when I called his dog.
Place theory	In hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.	When I heard a high pitch sound I thought about place theory.
Frequency theory	In hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch.	When I heard a high pitch sound, I thought about how the nerve impulses traveled up the auditory nerve and realized that it was the frequency theory.
Gate-control theory	the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The “gate” is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.	When I was pinched, I realized that my “gate” opened at that moment.

kinesthesia	the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts.	I used kinesthesia to know how my arms are moving when I throw a ball.
Vestibular sense	the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance.	I use my vestibular sense to be able to balance.
Sensory interaction	the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste.	When I smelled something disgusting and thought that it tasted disgusting, I realized that it was sensory interaction.
Embodied cognition	in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.	When I moved my hands while talking, I realized that I was using embodied cognition.
Gustav Fechner	German scientist and philosopher who studied our awareness of these faint stimuli and called them our absolute thresholds - the minimum amount of stimuli necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50 percent of the time.	When I learned about absolute thresholds, I realized that it was gustav fechner who made it.
Ernst Weber	Created Weber’s law which states that for an average person to perceive a difference, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.	When I learned about difference threshold, I learned that it was made by Ernst Weber.
David Hubel	Received a Nobel Prize for his work on feature detectors which are nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.	When I learned about feature detectors, I realized that it was David Hubel who discovered them.
Torsten Wiesel	Received a Nobel Prize for his work on feature detectors which are nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement.	When I learned about David Hubel, I learned that Torsten Wiesel worked with him on feature detectors.

Unit 4 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Learning	The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.	When I am at school, learning occurs.
habituation	An organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.	After an alarm ringing for 1 hour, the rat experienced habituation and stopped responding as much.
Associative learning	Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).	I used associative learning to train my dog.
stimulus	Any event or situation that evokes a response.	I get happy whenever I see food which means that food is a stimulus.
Cognitive learning	The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.	I learned how to cook by watching my mother, which was cognitive learning.
Classical conditioning	A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events	When my dog salivated at the ring of the bell, it was due to classical conditioning.
behaviorism	The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).	Watson was the father of behaviorism through his ‘Little Albert Experiment’.
Neutral stimulus	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.	In Pavlov’s experiment with the dog salivating at the sound of the bell, the bell was the neutral stimulus.
Unconditioned response (UR)	In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).	In Pavlov’s experiment with the dog salivating at the sound of the bell, salivating was the unconditioned response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US)	In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR).	In Pavlov’s experiment with the dog salivating at the sound of the bell, the food was the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR)	In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).	In Pavlov’s experiment with the dog salivating at the sound of the bell, the salivation to the bell was the conditioned response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)	In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).	In Pavlov’s experiment with the dog salivating at the sound of the bell, the bell was the conditioned stimulus.
acquisition	In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.	In Pavlov’s experiment, when the dog associated the bell to food and salivated to the bell, that was when the acquisition happened.
Higher-order conditioning	A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)	When I was feeding my dog, he reacted to the sound of the food bag instead of the sound of my bell because he knew that when he hears the sound of the bag, the bell will be rung which will mean that there is food.
Extinction	The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.	In Pavlov’s experiment when I stopped giving food after ringing the bell, the dog experienced extinction and stopped salivating.
Spontaneous recovery	The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.	After the dog stopped salivating to the bell due to me stopping giving it food after, once I started giving it food again, it experienced spontaneous recovery and started salivating again.
generalization	The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.	I conditioned my dog to react to his red dog toy, but he experienced generalization and reacted to any dog toy.
discrimination	In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.	My dog experienced discrimination when he was able to tell the difference between his red dog toy and other dog toys after I conditioned him to react to the red dog toy.
Operant conditioning	A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.	When I trained my bunny to walk in circle by using treats, I was using operant conditioning.

Law of effect	Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.	The Law of effect let me know that if I gave my younger brother candy everytime he does the dishes, he will most likely do them more.
Operant chamber	In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.	I used my operant chamber to condition my rat to play basketball by giving them treats whenever they scored.
reinforcement	In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows	I used positive reinforcement to help increase the behavior of my sister doing the dishes by giving her candy every time she completes the dishes.
shaping	An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.	I used shaping to make a rat turn in a circle by rewarding it whenever it turns more and more in the direction I wanted.
Discriminative stimulus	In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement).	When my mother gave my sister candy after she did the dishes, the dishes became a discriminative stimulus and made her continue doing the dishes more.
Positive reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.	I used positive reinforcement when I gave my sister candy each time she did the laundry to make her do it more.
Negative reinforcement	Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment.)	There was negative reinforcement when my car beeped at me to put on my seatbelt and would stop when I did what it wanted.
Primary reinforcer	An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.	I used food as my primary reinforcer in my experiment.
Conditioned reinforcer	A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer	When my mom tried to get my sister to clean her room, she gave her money every time she did, and the money was the conditioned reinforcer.
Reinforcement schedule	A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.	I used a reinforcement schedule to see how I will reward my dog while conduct my experiment.
Continuous reinforcement	Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.	I used continuous reinforcement by giving my dog a treat every time they gave me a high-five.
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement	Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.	I used partial reinforcement to train my dog by giving them a treat at random times no matter how many times they do the action or how much time has passed.
Fixed-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.	I used a fixed-ratio schedule to train my dog by giving him a treat every 5 times he gave a high-five.
Variable-ratio schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses	I used a variable-ratio schedule to train my dog by giving him a treat after he gave me a random number of high-fives.
Fixed-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.	I used a fixed-interval schedule to train my dog by giving him a treat every 3 minutes no matter how many times he gives a high-five.
Variable-interval schedule	In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.	I used a variable-interval schedule to train my dog by giving him a treat at random times no matter how many high-fives they give me.
punishment	An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows.	I punished my sister taking away her phone every time she broke something to make her stop breaking things.
biofeedback	A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension.	I used biofeedback to see how tense my muscles were.
Respondent behavior	Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus	In Pavlov’s experiment, salivating was a respondent behavior.
Operant behavior	Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.	When teachers tell children that they lose recess if they talk in class, it is operant behavior.

Cognitive map	A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.	When we remember our way to different classes in Deep Run, it is because we created cognitive maps.
Latent learning	Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.	When I realized that I knew my way to a class on my second day of school, I realized that I was experiencing latent learning.
insight	A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.	After my test, I gained insight and realized that I did my test wrong.
Intrinsic motivation	A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.	I had intrinsic motivation to run because I ran for fun.
Extrinsic motivation	A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.	I had extrinsic motivation to pass my test because I knew that the grade would give me an A in the class.
coping	Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.	I used coping methods to relax before I took my test when I was extremely stressed.
Problem-focused coping	Attempting to alleviate stress directly—by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor.	I used problem-focused coping when I decided to study for my test that I was stressed out about to relieve the stress.
Emotion-focused coping	Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction.	I used emotion-focused coping after I failed my test by listening to music to ignore the problem.
Learned helplessness	The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.	My dog experienced learned helplessness when he realized that his shock collar would not stop shocking him when he tried to escape.
External locus of control	The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.	My sister felt an external locus of control when she felt that there was nothing she could do to change her fate and she should just give up on trying.
Internal locus of control	The perception that you control your own fate.	I felt an internal locus of control when I believed that I could change my fate and become a famous soccer player even though I have been struggling.
self-control	The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.	I had self-control when I decided not to eat my dessert before dinner.
Observational learning	Learning by observing others. Also called social learning.	I used observational learning to learn how to eat using a fork by watching my parents use them.
modeling	The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.	When I watched my sister kick a soccer ball, I used modeling and tried to replicate her kick.
Mirror neurons	Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy	I felt happy when I saw another person being happy due to my mirror neurons firing.
Prosocial behavior	Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.	When I talked to a stranger, I was exhibiting prosocial behavior.
Ivan Pavlov	Figured out that Classical Conditioning was when a learned response occurs involuntarily in anticipation of some stimulus through the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ experiment.	When I think of Pavlov, I think about his experiment with his dog where he used conditioning to make a dog that used to salivate to his food, to salivate to the sound of a bell.
John B. Watson	The “Father of Behaviorism” through his Little Albert Experiment. Focused on Classical conditioning and figured out that it is when a learned response occurs involuntarily in anticipation of some stimulus through the ‘Pavlov’s dog’ experiment.	Watson did the ‘Little Albert’ experiment where he conditioned a child to be afraid of a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise that induced fear.
B.F. Skinner	Figured out that Operant Conditioning is voluntary and goal directed behavior which is shaped and maintained by consequences because people will repeat the good ones and avoid the bad ones.	Skinner taught me that when I reward my sister with candy when she does something that I want to make her repeat the action, that it is operant conditioning.

Edward Thorndike	Figured out that Operant Conditioning is voluntary and goal directed behavior which is shaped and maintained by consequences because people will repeat the good ones and avoid the bad ones.	Thorndike explained to me that people will repeat behaviors when they get a good consequence and will stop doing a behavior when they get a negative consequence.
John Garcia	Figured out the Garcia effect where people associate a certain substance to a completely irrelevant sickness and develop a conditioned taste aversion.	Garcia taught me that when I got sick the same day that I ate ice cream and even seeing ice cream now makes me sick is taste aversion.
Robery Rescorla	Developed the contingency model for classical conditioning where he stated that a stimulus has to be large enough to be noticeable so that it can develop and association.	Rescorla taught me that when I am training my dog using classical conditioning, I need to make my simulus noticeable or else the animal won’t react to it and ignore it.
Edward Tolman	Studied rats and mazes and figured out that animals create cognitive maps which showed latent learning also.	Tolman taught me that we create cognitive maps which are when we remember where to go to get to a place without realizing that you remember it.
Albery Bandura	Figured out that Observational learning is when you learn from others’ experiences and link to our own associations.	Bandura taught me that you can learn from others’ experiences through his Bobo Doll experiment where he learned that by watching someone act aggressively to something (the Bobo Doll), when the observer gets aggravated, they will replicate the behavior.

Unit 5 vocabulary

Memory	the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.	I use my memory to remember things for my test.
Encoding	the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning	When I read something and remember it, I went through the encoding process.
Storage	the process of retaining encoded information over time	The information that I learn for my test is storage.
Retrieval	the process of getting information out of memory storage.	When I take my test and know the answers, I am doing the process of retrieval.
Parallel Processing	the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.	When I look at an object and use the color, shape, and size to determine what it is, I am using parallel processing.
Sensory Memory	the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system	When I touch something, the feeling is recorded for a short time in my sensory memory.
Short-term memory	activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten.	When I learn someone's phone number to put it in my phone, I store it in my short-term memory.
Long-term memory	the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences	When I learn things for a test, I store them in my long term memory.
Working Memory	a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.	When I am trying to remember something that is in my long-term memory, it goes through my working memory.
Explicit Memory	memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.)	When I remember information for my history test, I am using my explicit memory.
Effortful Processing	encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.	When I am studying for my tests, I am using effortful processing.
Automatic Processing	unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings	I use automatic processing to remember the definition of definition.
Implicit Memory	retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.)	I use my implicit memory when I remember how to get somewhere without trying to learn it.
Ionic Memory	a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.	When I look at my cat, the image is put into my ionic memory.
Echoic Memory	a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.	When someone calls my name, it is put into my echoic memory.
Chunking	organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.	When I put my vocab terms in smaller groups to learn from, I am using chunking.
mnemonics	memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.	Never Eat Soggy Waffles is a mnemonic for North East South West.
Spacing Effect	the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.	When I study for 30 minutes a day, I am using the spacing effect to help me remember the information.
Testing Effect	enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.	When I take a quiz to see whether I know the information, I am using the testing effect.
Shallow Processing	encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.	When I look at a word and remember it, I am using shallow processing.

Deep Processing	encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.	When I figure out the word’s meaning to remember it, I am using deep processing.
Hippocampus	a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.	When I study for my tests, I store the information in my hippocampus.
Flashbulb Memory	a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.	When people remember 911, they have a flashbulb memory.
Long-term Potentiation	an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.	When I do the same thing multiple times, long-term potentiation will happen.
Recall	a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.	When I write the answers to questions in the blank without being provided a word bank, I am using recall.
Recognition	a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.	When I answer multiple choice questions by finding the right answer to the question, I am using recognition.
Relearning	a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.	When I relearn the information for my final, it will be easier and quicker than when I first learned it.
Priming	the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.	When I saw peanut butter and thought of jelly, priming was used.
Mood-congruent memory	the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.	When I was in a sad mood, I remembered things that happened the last time I was sad.
Serial Position Effect	our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.	When I study vocabulary, due to the serial position effect, I will most likely recall the first and last words best.
Anterograde Amnesia	an inability to form new memories	My cousin has anterograde amnesia and can’t remember anything that happened after 5 seconds.
Retrograde Amnesia	an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.	My cousin has retrograde amnesia and can’t remember anything that happened before 5 months ago.
Proactive Interference	the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.	Due to proactive interference, I can’t remember my new password but keep remembering my old password.
Retroactive Interference	the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.	Due to retroactive interference, I can’t remember my old phone number now that I changed to a new number.
Repression	in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.	When I went through a traumatic experience and forgot about it, it was due to repression.
Misinformation effect	incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.	When a lawyer questions someone about an event that happened by making them believe that something happened that didn’t, that is the misinformation effect.
Source Amnesia	attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.	When I can’t remember where I learned something from, I am going through source amnesia.
deja vu	that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.	When I experience something and believe that it happened before, I am going through deja vu.
Cognition	all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.	Cognition is what I do every day at school.
Concept	a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.	When I group dogs together, I am using a concept.

Prototype	a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).	When I think of a great white shark when I think of sharks, it is a prototype.
Creativity	the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.	When I think of something new and different, I am using my creativity.
Convergent Thinking	narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.	When I try to figure out the single exact way to do something, I am using convergent thinking.
Divergent thinking	expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions).	When I think of the different ways to solve one problem, I am using divergent thinking.
Algorithm	a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier—but also more error- prone—use of heuristics.	When I go through every possible solution in order, I am using an algorithm.
Heuristic	a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms	When I try to determine where the milk is by using my context cues and looking in the dairy aisle, I am using a heuristic.
Insight	a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.	After my test, I experienced insight and remembered the answer to the question.
Confirmation Bias	a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.	When I try to find information that proves that I was right and ignore information that proves I am wrong, I am going through confirmation bias.
Mental Set	a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.	When I try to solve a different problem in the exact same way as I tried to solve a similar problem, I am using a mental set.
Intuition	an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.	When I feel that something is the answer, I am using my intuition.
Representativeness heuristic	judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.	When I see someone with glasses, I believe that they are smart which is an example of a representativeness heuristic.
Availability Heuristic	estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.	I am scared of planes because the first thing I think of is a plane crash that i saw on tv which is an availability heuristic.
Overconfidence	the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.	When I believe that my answer is correct and there is no way it could be wrong, it is an example of overconfidence.
Belief Perseverance	clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited.	When people show me proof that my belief is wrong, I will disagree and stick to my belief which is an example of belief perserverance.
Framing	the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.	When lawyers question people, they will word things differently to get the answer that they want which is an example of framing.
Language	our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning	English is the most popular language.
Phoneme	in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.	A phoneme in sound is the sound ‘s’.
Morpheme	in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).	The morphemes in writing are write and ing.
Grammar	in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.	I use grammar in English to make sure that my writing is correct and legible.
Babbling Phase	beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.	My cousin is in their babbling phase and I can’t understand what they are saying.

One-word phase	the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.	My cousin is in the one word phase and says things like ‘food’ and ‘red’.
Two-word stage	beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.	My cousin is in the two word stage and says things like ‘food want’ and ‘color blue’.
Telegraphic speech	beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.	My cousin does telegraphic speech and says things like ‘want cookie’ and ‘food yummy’
Aphasia	impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).	My uncle has aphasia and can’t speak properly.
Broca’s Area	controls language expression—an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.	My uncle has damage to his Broca’s area and has broken speech due to it.
Wernicke’s Area	controls language reception—a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.	My uncle has damage to his Wernicke’s area and can not comprehend some things.
Linguistic determination	Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.	People who have more words for snow will think of snow differently compared to people who have one word for snow which is an example of linguistic determination.
Richard Atkinson 319	Proposed a three stage memory-forming process where we record a fleeting sensory memory that goes into the short-term that gets encoded through rehearsal. The information finally reaches the long-term memory where it stays for the future.	When I think about my short-term memory, I think about the process that was proposed by Richard Atkinson.
Richard Shiffrin 19	Proposed a three stage memory-forming process where we record a fleeting sensory memory that goes into the short-term that gets encoded through rehearsal. The information finally reaches the long-term memory where it stays for the future.	When I think about my long-term memory, I think about the process that was proposed by Richard Atkinson.
George A. Miller 322	Proposed that short-term memory can retain about seven information bits (+ or - 2).	When I think about my short term memory, I think about how George Miller believed that it could retain around 7 bits of information.
Hermann Ebbinghaus 324	Believed that those who learn quickly also forget quickly.	While I’m studying, I try not to cram all of the information because I think about how Herman Ebbinghaus believed what cramming was not the best method.
Eric Kandel 332	Observed the changes in the brain that happen when learning and memory storage happens.	When I think about how learning happens in the brain, I think about Eric Kandel’s discovery.
Elizabeth Loftus 347	Showed how eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories after a crime or an accident.	When I watched the film in class about whether the car was speeding when it hit the other car, I thought about Elizabeth Loftus’ discovery.
Robert Sternberg 357	Discovered the five components of creativity being expertise, imaginative thinking skills, A venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and a creative environment.	When I think about creativity, I recognise that I am very imaginative which is linked to Robert Sternberg.
Wolfgang Kohler 362	Demonstrated in an experiment with Sultan, a chimpanzee, that many different creatures display insight.	When I have insight after taking a test, I think about Wolfgang Kohler and his experiment with Sultan.
Amos Tversky 363	Researched the representativeness and availability heuristics which showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead to dumb decisions.	When I look at someone and think that they are smart, I think about Amos Tversky and the representativeness heuristic.
Daniel Kahneman 363	Researched the representativeness and availability heuristics which showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead to dumb decisions.	When I think about how scared I am of planes due to the first thing I think about them being plane crashes, I think about Daniel Kahneman and the availability heuristic.
Steven Pinker 372	Talked about how language is how we transfer information through squeaks and kisses.	When I think about how people communicate, I think about Steven Pinker’s discovery.
Noam Chomsky 375	Argued that all languages do share some basic elements which are called universal grammar.	When I think about the similarities between languages, I think about Noam Chomsky and what he believed.
Paul Broca 377	Discovered Broca’s aphasia and what causes it.	My cousin has broca’s aphasia and struggles to speak which makes me think about Paul Broca and his discovery.
Carl wernicke 377	Discovered Wernicke’s aphasia and what causes it.	My cousin has Wernicke’s aphasia and struggles with comprehension which makes me think about Carl Wernicke and his discovery.
Benjamin Lee Whorf 379	Contended that language determines the way we think (linguistic determinism).	When I think about how language influences me, I think about Benjamin Lee Whorf and his discovery of linguistic determinism.
Intelligence	mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.	I have a high level of intelligence because I am good at things like solving problems.
Intelligence Test	a method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores.	I took an intelligence test and got a high score.
General Intelligence (g)	a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test	My general intelligence is extremely high.
Factor Analysis	a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person’s total score.	When I used a factor analysis procedure, I figured out what part of the test I needed to work on.
Savant Syndrome	a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing.	I have Savant Syndrome and am great at drawing.
Grit	in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals.	I have grit so I work hard everyday to get good grades so that I can attend a good college.
Emotional Intelligence	the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.	I have a high emotional intelligence so my friends come to me when they are having issues.
Mental Age	a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. Thus, a child who does as well as the average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.	When I took the intelligence test, it told me that I had a mental age of 25.
Stanford-Binet	the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet’s original intelligence test.	I took a Stanford-Binet Intelligence test and got a high score.
Intelligence Quotient	defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100, with scores assigned to relative performance above or below average.	I took an Intelligence test and got an intelligence quotient of 120.
Achievement Test	a test designed to assess what a person has learned.	I took an achievement test to evaluate what I have learned in the past year.
Aptitude Test	a test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.	I took an aptitude test to figure out how I will perform next year.
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)	the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests.	I used the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale and got a 120.

Standardization	defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.	The standardization allow us to figure out that the average score of the Intelligence test was 100.
Normal Curve	the symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.	When I took an intelligence test, I was placed in the middle of the normal curve.
Reliability	the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting.	We looked at the reliability of an intelligence test and found out that it was extremely reliable.
Validity	the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.	We looked at the validity of an intelligence test and found out that it’s validity was low.
Content validity	the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest.	We checked the content validity of an intelligence test and figured out that it was high.
Predictive validity	the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)	We looked at the predictive validity of an intelligence test and found out that it did not work well.
cohort	a group of people from a given time period.	Me and my classmates are a cohort.
Crystallized intelligence	our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.	My crystallized intelligence is a lot higher now that I am 30 compared to when I was 15.
Fluid intelligence	our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.	My fluid intelligence is a lot lower the more that I age.
Intellectual disability	a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life. (Formerly referred to as mental retardation.)	I scored a 50 on my intelligence test, so I have a mental disability.
Down syndrome	a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21.	My friend has down syndrome due to them having 2 of chromosome 21.
Heritability	the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.	There is a smaller heritability between my friends that are twins compared to me and my sister.
Stereotype threat	a self confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.	Due to me being a soccer player I believe that there is a stereotype threat of me not being smart.
Charles Spearman	Believed that we have one general intelligence (g). He granted that people often have special abilities that stand out and he helped develop factor analysis.	I have a high general intelligence which Spearman believed exists.
L.L. Thurstone	Identified 7 clusters of primary mental abilities (word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory)	I have a high numerical ability which was one of the 7 clusters that Thurstone identified.
Howard Gardner	Views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in different packages. Believed that people have eight intelligences. Believes that there is not one intelligence.	I am bad at one intelligence but great at another which makes me believe that Howard Gardner is correct with his theory.
Robert Sternberg	Believed that there were three intelligences (Analytical intelligence, Creative intelligence, and Practical intelligence)	I have a high creative intelligence, so I am able to solve problems differently than normal people would, which is one of Gardner’s three intelligences.
Francis Galton	Liked measuring human traits. Created an intelligence test to attempt to measure natural ability and created the phrase nature and nurture.	I took Galton’s intelligence test and figured out that I did not outscore anyone.
Alfred Binet 18	Studied the problem of bias in the school systems. Attempted to measure children’s mental age.	I measured my mental age which was something that was created by Alfred Binet and got a score of 20
Lewis Terman 18	Revised the intelligence test to create the Stanford-Binet Intelligence test.	I took the Stanford Binet Intelligence test which was created by Lewis Terman.
David Wechsler 20	Created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.	I took the WAIS scale which was created by David Wechsler and ranked high.
Carol Dweck 35	Reported that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a fixed mindset. Reported that believing that intelligence is changeable can lead to a growth mindset which results in a focus on learning and growing.	I was able to increase my intelligence by having a growth mindset like Carol Dweck advised.

Unit 6 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Developmental Psychology	A branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.	I I think about how people change over time, I think about developmental psychology.
Zygote	the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.	When I think of a baby, I think of a zygote.
Embryo	the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.	When I saw my baby brother, he was an embryo.
Fetus	the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.	When I saw an ultrasound, I saw a fetus.
Teratogens	agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.	Teratogens harmed my little cousin because her mother smoked weed.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)	physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features.	My baby cousin has fetal alcohol syndrome due to her mother drinking a lot while she was in the womb.
Habituation	Decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.	My baby brother went through Habituation and didn’t respond to the blinking light as much as when he first saw it.
Maturation	biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.	As I grew up, I went through maturation.
Cognition	All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.	While I was thinking, I was going through cognition.
Schema	a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.	I made a schema and thought of a great white shark as the schema for sharks.
Assimilation	interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.	I used assimilation to add a tiger to my cat schema.
Accommodation	adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.	I used accommodation to change my schema and take the crab out of my fish schema.
Sensorimotor stage	in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.	My cousin’s in the sensorimotor stage and knows the world through touch.
Object permanence	The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.	My cousin developed object permanence and knew that even if he couldn’t see something, it still existed.
Preoperational stage	in Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.	My cousin was in the preoperational stage and was able to speak english a little but did not know a lot of logic.
Conservation	the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.	My cousin was in a conservation stage and realized that even if we use different containers to hold the same water, the volume doesn’t change.
Egocentrism	in Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty taking another’s point of view.	My cousin was in the egocentrism stage and did not care to think about other people’s opinions.
Theory of mind	people’s ideas about their own and others’ mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.	When I think about the theory of mind, I thought about how others feel and what that might predict.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)	a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.	My cousin has the autism spectrum disorder and struggles socially.
Concrete operational stage	in Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.	My cousin is in the concrete operational stage and can think logically about events.
Formal Operational stage	In Piaget’s theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.	My cousin is in the formal operational stage and can think logically about abstract concepts.
Stranger Anxiety	the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.	My baby cousin has stranger anxiety and cries whenever someone random holds her.
Attachment	an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.	My cousin has an attachment to her mother.
Critical Period	an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.	My cousin is reaching a critical period where he is supposed to be able to talk.
Imprinting	the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period.	Conrad’s experiment taught me about how animals go through imprinting and become attached to their caregiver.
temperament	a person’s characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.	My brother has a bad temperament and cries whenever something happens.
Basic Trust	according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.	My cousin has basic trust with his mother and is calm when his mother holds him.
Self-concept	all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”	My cousin developed a self-concept and started to figure out who they are.
Gender	the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.	My cousin developed a sense of their gender and decided that they wanted to be male.
Aggression	any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.	My cousin has bad aggression and reacts dangerously when someone yells at her.
Gender role	a set of expected behaviors for males or for females.	There was a gender role for females in the past where females had to cook and clean.
Role	a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.	At my job, i'm in the role of a manager, so I am supposed to be calm and smart.
Gender Identity	our sense of being male or female.	My gender identity is female.
Social Learning Theory	the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.	I learned about the social learning theory and learned that my cousin acts like my aunt due to it.
Gender Typing	the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.	I went through gender typing and acquired a feminine role.
Transgender	an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex.	My cousin is trangender and changed from a female to a male.
Adolescence	the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.	I am going through adolescence.
Identity	our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent’s task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles.	I and trying to find my identity and know who I am and where I fit in in society.
Social identity	the “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.	I am working to find my social identity and place in society.
Intimacy	in Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.	My cousin is going through intimacy with her boyfriend.
Emerging Adulthood	for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to midtwenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.	My sister is emerging adulthood and becoming an adult.
X chromosome	the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.	I have two X chromosomes because I am a female.
Y chromosome	the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.	Males have one Y chromosome.
Testosterone	the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.	Men have a high level of testosterone.
Puberty	the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.	I am going through puberty and maturing as a person.
Primary sex characteristics	the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.	Female and males have different primary sex characteristics.
Secondary sex characteristics	nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.	Female and males have different secondary sex characteristics.
Menarche	The first menstrual period.	At 10 years old, some people go through menarche.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)	a lifethreatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.	Some people acquire AIDS while being with a man.
Sexual orientation	an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation), the other sex (heterosexual orientation), or both sexes (bisexual orientation).	My sexual orientation is heterosexual.
Menopause	the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.	My aunt went through menopause and couldn’t have children.
Cross-sectional study	a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.	My cousin went through a cross sectional study and was tested with people of many different ages.
Longitudinal study	research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.	My cousin went through a longitudinal study and was recorded for many years of their life.
Social clock	the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.	When my aunt got married, they were doing things in accordance to their social clock.
Jean Piaget	Developed the 4 stages of cognitive development , schemas, accommodation, and assimilation.	I went through accommodation which was developed by Jean Paiget.
Lev Vygotsky	Created the zone of proximal development theory	My cousin went through a zone of proximal development and I thought about Lev Vygotsky.
Konrad Lorenz	Studied the attachment development in ducks.	When I see a duck I think about Konrad Lorenz and his attachment development studies.
Harry Harlow	Studied contact comfort in monkeys.	When I think about how my brother clams down when he was held by my mom, I thought about Harry Harlow and the contact comfort theory.
Margaret Harlow	Wife of Harry Harlow and worked on the experiment with him.	When I think about how my cousin calms down when he was held by my aunt, I thought about Margret Harlow and the contact comfort theory.
Mary Ainsworth	Determined the different types of attachment.	When my brother cries after my mother leaves the room, I think about Mary Ainsworth’s theory.
Diana Baumrind	Determined the different parenting styles.	I have an authoritative parenting style which was created by Diana Baumrind.
Carol Gilligan	Confronted Kohlberg for only studying men.	When I thought about Kholberg’s theory, I think about Carol Gilligan’s refutation.
Albert Bandura	Determined the social learning theory and how gender is developed based on people celebrating gender-appropriate behavior.	When I thought about the social learning theory, I think about Robert Bandura.
Lawrence Kohlberg	Determined the 6 stages of moral development.	When I think about moral development, I think about Lawrence Kohlberg.
Erik Erikson	Created the 8 stages of psychosocial development.	When I think about the 8 stages of psychosocial development, I think about Erik Erikson.
Sigmund Freud	Created the psychosexual stages of development.	When I think about the psychosexual stages of development, I think about Sigmund Freud.

Unit 7 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Motivation	a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior	I feel the motivation to eat food, so I eat food.
Instinct	a complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.	Birds have an instinct to migrate every winter.
Drive Reduction theory	the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.	I felt hungry and had to eat due to the drive reduction theory because my hunger would not be satisfied until I ate.
Homeostasis	a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.	My body wants to stay at homeostasis so it can be healthy and I don’t have complications.
Incentive	a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.	My mom said she would give me a cookie if I did well on my test which is a great incentive.
Yerkes-Dodson Law	the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.	Due to the Yerkes-Dodson Law, I did great on my test because I was at the point of optimal arousal.
Hierarchy of needs	Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher - level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.	I have satisfied my physiological needs, so according to the hierarchy of needs, I now need to satisfy my safety needs.
Glucose	the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.	When I run during soccer, I am using my glucose which is another reason why after games I feel hungry.
Set point	the point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.	My weight has a set point so I don’t lose weight easily and when I do, I gain it again.
Basal metabolic rate	the body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.	Because I am resting, I can measure my basal metabolic rate.
Sexual response cycle	The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.	When I was learning about Masters and Johnson, I learned about the sexual response cycle.
Refractory period	a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.	I learned that only men have a refractory period.
Sexual dysfunction	a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.	People have sexual dysfunction and some can’t have kids.
Estrogens	sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.	Women produce high amounts of estrogen which causes their sex characteristics to form.
Testosterone	the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty.	Men produce large amounts of testosterone which causes their sex characteristics to form.
Emotion	a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological arousal, (2) expressive behaviors, and (3) conscious experience.	When I feel emotion, I go through a cycle of being physiologically aroused, expressive behaviors, and conscious experiences.
James-Lange Theory	the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion - arousing stimuli.	Due to the James Lange theory, when I felt emotion, I felt physiologically aroused which led to me feeling emotion.
Cannon-Bard theory	the theory that an emotion - arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.	Due to the Cannon-Bard theory, when I felt emotion, I felt physiologically aroused and felt the emotion at the same time.
Two-factor theory	the Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.	Due to the Schachter-Singer Two factor theory, when I feel emotion, I am physically aroused, cognitively label the arousal, and then I feel the emotion.
Polygraph	a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes) accompanying emotion.	I used a polygraph to see whether my friend was lying to me and learned she was.
Facial feedback effect	the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feeling such as fear, anger, or happiness.	Due to the facial feedback effect, when I forced myself to smile, I felt happy.
Health psychology	a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.	Doctors use health psychology, to help patients get better.
Stress	the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging.	When I have a test, I feel high amounts of stress.
General Adaptation Syndrome	Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.	I had the general adaptation syndrome and was able to resist the stress until the test and then felt the exhaustion.
Tend and befriend response	under stress, people especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend).	When I am under stress, I try to find someone who I can become friends with and can help me, which is the tend and befriend response.
Psychophysiological illness	literally, “mind - body” illness; any stress - related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.	My friend has a psychophysiological illness and has hypertension.
Psychoneuroimmunology	The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.	My uncle studies psychoneuroimmunology and is learning about how stress affects people’s health.
Lymphocytes	the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.	My lymphocytes help me fight infections and illnesses.
Coronary Heart Disease	the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.	My friend has coronary heart disease which is more common in Type As which she is.
Type A	Friedman and Rosenman’s term for competitive, hard - driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger - prone people.	My friend is a Type A and loves to play sports because she is extremely competitive.
Type B	Friedman and Rosenman’s term for easygoing, relaxed people.	My friend is a Type B and everyone loves them because they’re known as being extremely ‘chill’.
Abraham Maslow	Created the concept of self-actualiztion and the “hierarchy of needs model”	I learned about the hierarchy of needs model that was created by Abraham Maslow.
William Masters	Studied the physiology of sex by monitoring sexual response “cycles”	I learned about the sex cycles that were observed by Masters and Johnson.
Virginia Johnson	Studied the physiology of sex by monitoring sexual response “cycles”	I learned about the sex cycles that were observed by Masters and Johnson.
William James	Published “The Principles of Psychology”, developed the concept of functionalism, and helped to create the first theory of emotion	I read the Principles of Psychology which was written by William James and to my surprise, I had also learned about his theory of emotion.
Stanley Schachter	Created the theory that to experience an emotion, you have to be physically aroused and then cognitively label it first.	I learned about the Schachter Two Factor Theory of emotion where you need to be physically aroused and then cognitively label it which was created by Stanley Schachter.
Han Selye	Researched the general adaptation syndrome.	I was learning about how I deal with stress and l learned that Han Selye created the general adaptation syndrome.
Personality	an individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting.	My personality is an easygoing, chill, funny, and fun person who loves soccer and is very smart.
Free Association	in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing.	I used the free association method where my patient would just say anything that would come to their mind and I would analyze it.
Psychoanalysis	Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions.	When I used free association, it was a part of psychoanalysis which was created by Freud. Psychoanalysis lets me take a look into people’s unconscious motives and conflicts so that I can treat them.
Unconscious	according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.	I studied the unconscious and learned that it is like the bottom part of an iceberg that you can see or be cognitively aware of.
Id	a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.	I learned about the id which wants to satisfy needs and wants, for example, when I wanted to eat candy, my id made me want to take my friend’s candy bar since I didn’t have one.
Ego	the largely conscious, “executive” part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id’s desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.	I learned about the ago which operates on the reality principle and makes all of the decisions.
Superego	the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.	I learned about my superego which is like my moral compass and tries to do whatever is morally right.
Psychsexual stages	The childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id’s pleasure- seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.	I am learning about the psychosexual stages which were created by Freud and learned that my friend who loves chewing gum has not satisfied their oral stage.
Oedipus complex	according to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father.	My friend has an oedipus complex and feel jealousy towards their father and desires their mother.
Identification	the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos	My friend went through identification and now has a lot of the same values.
Fixation	according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure - seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved.	My friend who likes chewing gum probably has an oral fixation according to freud.
Defense mechanisms	in psychoanalytic theory, the ego’s protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality.	One of my friends used the defense mechanism of repression and forgot about her trauma.
Repression	in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.	When 9/11 happened, my friend used repression to forget about it.
Psychodynamic theories	modern-day approaches that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of childhood experiences.	Carl Jung believed in the psychodynamic theories where you focus on the unconscious and childhood experiences.
Collective unconscious	Carl Jung’s concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species’ history.	Carl Jung came up with the collective unconscious where
Projective test	a personality test, such as the Rorschach, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one’s inner dynamics.	I used the InkBlot Test which is a projective test and I saw a butterfly in the picture.
Thematic Apperception Test	a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes.	I took a thematic apperception test and learned a lot about my inner feelings and interests.
Rorschach inkblot test	the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.	I took the Rorschach Inkblot test and saw a butterfly in the picture which let me know about my inner feelings.
False consensus effect	The tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and our behaviors.	Due to the false consensus effect, I thought that everyone hated Chipotle even though they don’t.
Terror-management theory	A theory of death-related anxiety; explores people’s emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death.	Due to the terror management theory, I learned about how people react to knowing that they are going to die.
Humanistic theories	View personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth.	I agree with the humanistic theories where people focus on trying to be the best person they can.
Self-actualization	According to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self - esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential.	My friend has reached self-actualization and is trying to fulfill their true potential.
Unconditional positive regard	according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person.	My friend has unconditional positive regard and accepts people no matter what.
Self-concept	all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, “Who am I?”	My friend has a positive self-concept and knows who they are and loves themself.
Trait	a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self - report inventories and peer reports.	One of my traits is that I’m extremely laid back.
Personality inventory	a questionnaire (often with true - false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.	I took a personality inventory to figure out what personality traits I had and see my feelings and behaviors.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory	the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.	My friend took the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory to see what emotional disorder she had.
Empirically derived test	a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.	Mt friend took an empirically derived test to see how they think about things and how objective they are.
Social-cognitive perspective	views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people’s traits (including their thinking) and their social context.	I agree with the social-cognitive perspective where people determine why people act a certain way based on their traits and social context.

Behavioral approach	in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development.	I agree with the behavioral approach where they look at the effects of learning on how our personality changes.
Reciprocal determinism	the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment.	I learned that through reciprocal determinism, behavior, cognition, and the environment influence each other.
Positive psychology	the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive.	I am learning about positive psychology and learned that people who study it try to help people be their best selves and promote things that will allow them to thrive.
Self	in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions.	I learned about my Self and how it affect personality, thoughts, feelings, and actions.
Spotlight effect	Overestimating others’ noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us).	I learned about the spotlight effect where I believed that everyone was paying attention to me when they actually had other things to focus on.
Self-esteem	one’s feelings of high or low self - worth.	My friend has low self esteem and doesn’t think they’re worth anything.
Self-efficacy	one’s sense of competence and effectiveness.	I have high self-efficacy and believe that I am able to do anything that I want to.
Self-serving bias	a readiness to perceive oneself favorably.	When I was late to practice I believed that it was due to a crash but when my teammate was late to practice, I believed that it was due to their personality which was a self-serving bias.
Narcissism	excessive self-love and self-absorption.	My friend has high levels of narcissism and believes that they are the absolute best.
Individualism	giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.	I have an individualism mindset and try to focus on my own goals instead of what the group needs.
Collectivism	giving priority to the goals of one’s group (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.	I have a collectivism mindset and decided to do what’s best for the overall group instead of just one person.
Sigmund Freud	Developed the ideas of personality and states of consciousness. Additionally created the psychosexual stage theory of personality and stressed the importance of the unconscious. Also talked about the sexual drive, psychoanalytic therapy, and the theory of dreaming.	I learned about Sigmund Feund and his idea of the unconscious, psychosexual theories, psychoanalytic therapy, and the theory of dreaming. When I learned about him, I realized that he is a major part of psychology and is a very important person.
Alfred Adler	Developed the concept of feelings of inferiority inferiority complex) and birth order effects	When I learned about an inferiority complex, I learned about Alfred Adler who created the idea.
Karen Horney	Claimed that against Freud’s concept of penial envy, men have womb envy.	Due to it being women's month, my friend learned about Karen Horney who fought against Freud who claimed that men had womb envy.
Carl Jung	Created the theory of the collective unconscious, archetypes, and described introversion and extroversion.	When I learned about the collective unconscious, I learned about Carl jung who came up with it.
Abraham Maslow	Created the concept of self-actualization and the hierarchy of needs model.	When I learned about the hierarchy of needs model, I learned about Abraham Maslow who created it.
Carl Rogers	Developed a client-centered therapy that emphasized genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.	When I was learning about Humanistic theories, I thought about Carl Rogers who believed heavily in it.
Robert McCrae	Created the Big Five model of personality traits	When I took the Big Five Personality test, I thought about Robert McCrae who created it.
Paul Costa	Created the Big Five model of personality traits	When I took the Big Five Personality test, I thought about Paul Costa who created it.
Albert Bandura	Developed the social learning theory, reciprocal determinism, and self-efficacy	When I learned about the social learning theory and self-efficacy, I learned about Albert Bandura who created it.
Martin Seligman	Known for his research on learned helplessness and promoting research in positive psychology	When I learned about Learned helplessness, I thought about Martin Seligman who came up with it.

Unit 8 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Social Psychology	the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.	I am learning social psychology and am learning about attribution theory.
Attribution Theory	the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.	When someone arrived late, due to the attribution theory, I thought that they must have been stuck in traffic.
Fundamental Attribution Error	the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.	When I thought that this person was late because they just didn’t care about our training when their car actually broke down, it was a fundamental attribution error.
Attitude	feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.	My friend always has a positive attitude and looks at everything from a positive perspective.
Peripheral route persuasion	occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.	An ad used peripheral route persuasion and focused on how pretty the woman was instead of the quality of the product.
Central Route Persuasion	occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.	An ad used central route persuasion and tried to persuade the audience by telling them all of the features of the product and how good it is.
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon	the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.	My cousin used the foot-in-the-door phenomenon to get 30 dollars by asking for 10 and then asking for 20 dollars.
role	a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.	The role of mothers are to take care of their child.
Cognitive dissonance theory	the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.	Due to the cognitive dissonance theory, when my friend believes that cheating is wrong but then cheats, they change their perspective to be that it’s ok since the teacher was bad.
Conformity	adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.	Due to conformity, I act differently depending on who I’m around.
Normative social influence	influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.	Someone had normative social influence and tried to change to be accepted.
Informational social influence	influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.	I was informational social influenced and I was influenced by someone because I believed that they had better information.
Social Facilitation	Improved performance on simple or well - learned tasks in the presence of others.	Due social facilitation when I’m playing soccer, I do better when I have a crowd.
Social Loafing	the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.	Due to social loafing, when my friend is in a group, they don’t do any work.
Deindividuation	the loss of self - awareness and self - restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.	Due to deindividuation, a lot of people act more aggressively in groups.
Group Polarization	the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.	My friend didn’t have strong views about something until they joined a group of people who did, which was due to group polarization.
Groupthink	the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision - making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.	Due to groupthink, I don’t speak up in groups to blend in.
Culture	the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.	There are many different cultures within different groups.
Norm	an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.	There are many social norms like not being loud in public.
Prejudice	an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.	Some people have prejudice and believe that a group of people are worse than others.
Stereotype	a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.	There is a stereotype that all girls like pink.
Discrimination	Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.	There are people who have discrimination against people who are not in their group.
Just-World Phenomenon	the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.	Due to the just world phenomenon, we think that people who are victims actually deserved what happened to them.
Ingroup	“Us”—people with whom we share a common identity.	My in-group is my close friend group.
Outgroup	“Them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.	My out-group is the rest of the school that I don’t talk to.
Ingroup Bias	the tendency to favor our own group.	When I have to choose between my in-group being better or the out-group, I always choose my in-group.
Scapegoat THeory	the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.	Due to the scapegoat theory, some people are blamed for something that they didn’t do.
Other-race effect	the tendency to recall faces of one’s own race more accurately than faces of other races. Also called the cross-race effect or the own-race bias.	I can recall people from my own race better than others which is the other-race effect.
Aggression	any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.	I have witnessed aggression of someone hitting another and mentally abusing someone.
Frustration-Aggression Principle	the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.	Due to the frustration-aggression principle, when I get extremely frustrated, I get angry.
Social Script	culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.	Due to the social script, when I am in the library, talk quietly and either read or check out a book.
Mere Exposure effect	the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.	Due to the mere exposure effect, my friend started liking someone by being around them a lot.
Passionate love	an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.	People who are newlyweds are most likely in the state of passionate love.
Compassionate love	the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.	People who have been married for 10 years are most likely in the state of compassionate love.
Equity	a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.	When I make a friend, I want equity so that we support each other.
Self-disclosure	revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.	To improve my relationships with my friends, I use self-disclosure to get closer to them.
Altruism	unselfish regard for the welfare of others.	My friend is altruistic and cares for others without wanting anything from them.
Bystander effect	the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.	Due to the bystander effect, a person that fell down in public did not receive help.
Social Exchange theory	the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.	Due to the social exchange theory, I try to get the best outcome without it costing me a lot.
Reciprocity norm	an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.	Due to the reciprocity norm, I try to help people who helped me.
Social-Responsibility norm	an expectation that people will help those needing their help.	Due to the social responsibility norm, I try to help people who are older than me.
Conflict	a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.	I had a conflict with my friend because I wanted to go to Chick-Fil-A and they wanted to go to Chipotle.
Social Trap	a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self - interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.	When my teammate argued with the other team during a timed event was a social trap since it ultimately wasted everyone’s time.
Mirror-Image perceptions	mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.	Due to mirror-image perceptions, I see myself as a nice person and the other team as evil.
Self-Fulfilling prophecy	a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.	I thought that I would do badly on one of my tests which caused me to do bad on the test because I didn’t study which was a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Superordinate goals	Shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.	When me and someone I don’t like work together to achieve a common goal, that is a superordinate goal.
GRIT	Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension - Reduction—a strategy designed to decrease international tensions.	My friend used GRIT and tried to concede a little so that we could come up with a compromise.
Philip Zimbardo	Developed the Stanford Prison Experiment to check and see how roles affect our actions.	When I think about how the roles that people play affect how they act, I think about Philip Zimbardo.
Leon Festinger	Developed the theory of cognitive dissonance.	When I change my attitude to align with my actions, I think of Leon Festinger and his theory of cognitive dissonance.
Solomon Asch	Developed the Line test which tested conformity.	When I think about how I tend to conform to the group I’m around, I think about Solomon Asch and his line experiment on conformity.
Stanley Milgram	Did an experiment with a teacher shocking a student who didn’t answer correctly to test the effects of authority on obedience.	When I think about how I tend to obey authority, I think about Stanley Milgram and his shock experiment on the obedience of authority.

Unit 9 Vocabulary

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Psychological DIsorder	a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.	My cousin has a ADHD which is a psychological disorder.
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)	a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.	My cousin has ADHD and can’t focus for long periods of time.
Medical Model	the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.	To treat ADHD with adderall which proves the medical model is true.
DSM-5	the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.	When diagnosing ADHD, I would use the DSM-5 to make sure that they have the symptoms.
Anxiety Disorders	Psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety.	My cousin has a panic disorder which is an anxiety disorder.
Generalized anxiety disorder	an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.	My cousin constantly feels panicked and stressed which ended up being a generalized anxiety disorder.
Panic Disorder	an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes - long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack.	My cousin has a panic disorder which causes them to sometimes have chest pain and not be able to breathe.
Phobia	an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.	My cousin has a phobia of heights and refuses to go to rooftops.
Social Anxiety DIsorder	Intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such.	My cousin has a social anxiety disorder and does not go out in public often.
Agoraphobia	fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic.	My cousin has agoraphobia and always looks for the exits when she is forced to go out in public.
Obsessive-compulsive disorder	a disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).	My friend has OCD and feels the urge to correct things and doesn’t feel okay until they correct the problem.
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder	a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.	After my cousin experienced 911, she developed PTSD and had to get counseling.
Posttraumatic Growth	Positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.	After experiencing 911, my cousin started a charity which was posttraumatic growth.
Mood disorders	Psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes.	My cousin has depression which is a mood disorder.
Major Depressive Disorder	a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.	My cousin has depression and stopped hanging out with other people and participating in activities that they used to love.
Mania	a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.	My cousin is bipolar and is sometimes unusually happy which was an example of mania.
Bipolar Disorder	a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania.	My cousin is bipolar and is sometimes extremely happy and other times is extremely depressed.
Rumination	compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.	My cousin has rumination and always over thinks all of her problems.
Schizophrenia	a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression.	My cousin has schizophrenia and because of it, she sometimes believes that she is the president and sees unicorns.
Psychosis	a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.	My cousin has psychosis and believes that if they stay in their house all day, they will become a millionaire.

Word	Definition	Drawing or Sentence
Delusions	false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.	My cousin believes that they are an alien which is a delusion.
Hallucination	false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.	My cousin sees ghosts which is a hallucination.
Somatic Symptom DIsorder	A psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause.	My cousin has somatic symptom disorder and has constant headaches without anything actually being wrong.
Conversion DIsorder	a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.	My cousin has conversion disorder and their arm hurts without anything actually being wrong.
Illness Anxiety DIsorder	a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease.	My cousin has illness anxiety disorder where even though the doctor said that they were fine, they believed that something was still wrong.
Dissociative Disorders	Disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.	My cousin has dissociative identity disorder which is a dissociative disorder.
Dissociative Identity DIsorder	a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.	My cousin has dissociative identity disorder and 3 different people share the same body.
Anorexia Nervosa	an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.	My cousin has anorexia nervosa and forces themselves to starve because they believe that they are overweight.
Bulimia Nervosa	an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting.	My cousin has bulimia nervosa and eats a lot but then makes herself puke after because she believes that she is overweight.
Binge-eating disorder	Significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.	My cousin has a binge-eating disorder where they eat a lot but then feel guilty about it.
Personality DIsorders	psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.	My cousin has antisocial personality disorder which is a personality disorder.
Antisocial Personality Disorder	a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.	My cousin has antisocial personality disorder and doesn’t care about anyone and does whatever they want.
Psychotherapy	treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.	My cousin got psychotherapy and ended up taking to the therapist to solve her problems.
Biomedical THerapy	Prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology.	My cousin got biomedical therapy by getting prescribed adderall for her ADHD.
Eclectic Approach	an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client’s problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy.	My cousin’s therapist uses many different techniques which is an eclectic approach.
Psychoanalysis	Sigmund Freud’s therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient’s free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences—and the therapist’s interpretations of them—released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self - insight.	My cousin’s therapist used psychoanalysis and analyzed their dreams and talked a lot about their unconsciousness.
Resistance	in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety- laden material.	When my cousin decided to change topics after the therapist asked about their mother it was resistance.
Interpretation	in psychoanalysis, the analyst’s noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight.	When my cousin resisted talking about their mother, the therapist noted it which was an interpretation.
Transference	in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships	When my cousin lashed out at the therapist while talking about her mother, this was an example of transference.

Psychodynamic Therapy	Therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight.	When I think about psychodynamic therapy, I think about people talking about what happened in their childhood.
Insight Therapies	a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses.	My cousin’s psychologist used insight therapies by talking to her to uncover her underlying motives.
Client-centered therapy	a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients’ growth.	My cousin’s therapist used client-centered therapy and used unconditional positive regard to make her feel comfortable and open up more.
Active Listening	Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers’ client- centered therapy.	When my cousin was going through therapy, the therapist used active listening to make them more comfortable and feel heard.
Unconditional Positive Regard	a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self awareness and self-acceptance.	When I think about unconditional positive regard, I think about Carl Rogers and his client-centered therapy.
Behavior Therapy	therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.	When I think about behavior therapy, I think about Mary Cover Jones who created the concept.
Counterconditioning	Behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning.	My cousin’s therapist used counterconditioning to make them stop drinking by making her feel nauseous when she drinks.
Exposure Therapies	Behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality exposure therapy, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actual situations) to the things they fear and avoid.	My cousin’s therapist used exposure therapies to treat their fear of spiders by slowly exposing them to spiders.
Systematic Desensitization	a type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety - triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.	My cousin’s therapist used systematic desensitization by having them rank their fear level and slowly exposing them to their fears.
Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy	an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to electronic simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking.	My cousin’s therapist used virtual reality exposure therapy to overcome her fear of heights by skydiving in virtual reality.
Aversive Conditioning	a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol).	My cousin’s therapist used aversive conditioning to make them stop drinking by making them feel nauseous whenever they drink.
Token Economy	an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.	My cousin used a token economy in their class by giving fake money to kids when they are good that they can redeem for a prize in the future.
Cognitive Therapy	therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.	My cousin’s therapist used cognitive therapy to change their thinking to improve their condition.
Rational-Emotive Behavior therapy	a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.	My cousin’s therapist used rational-emotive behavior to change their mindset because it was not logical and didn’t make sense.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy	a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior).	My cousin’s therapist used cognitive behavioral therapy to change her behavior and thinking together.
Group Therapy	therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction.	My cousin went to group therapy to be with people who have gone through the same experiences.
Family Therapy	therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members.	My cousin went through family therapy to improve their familial relationship.
Regression Toward the mean	the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.	My cousin’s grade was very high for one test, but due to the regression toward the mean, it went back to their normal scores.
Meta-analysis	a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.	My cousin’s therapist used meta-analysis to combine the results of 10 different research studies.
Evidence-based practice	clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences.	My cousin’s therapist uses evidence based practice to decide to use medication to help her problems.

Therapeutic alliance	a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client’s problem.	My cousin has a therapeutic alliance with her therapist and has trust and understanding with them and feels like they can say anything to them.
Resilience	the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma.	My cousin has resilience and is able to resilience and was able to recover from the abuse that they faced.
Psychopharmacology	the study of the effects of drugs on mind and behavior.	My cousin studied psychopharmacology and learned about how adderall affects ADHD patients.
Antipsychotic Drugs	drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder.	My cousin has schizophrenia and had to use antipsychotic drugs to treat it.
Antianxiety Drugs	drugs used to control anxiety and agitation.	My cousin has anxiety and has to take antianxiety drugs to treat it.
Antidepressant Drugs	Drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder.	My cousin has depression and has to take antidepressants to treat it.
Electroconvulsive Therapy	a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient.	My cousin is severely depressed and had to go through electroconvulsive therapy to stop her suicidal tendencies.
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation	the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.	My cousin used repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation to treat her depression because she didn’t want to do electroconvulsive therapy.
Psychosurgery	surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior.	My cousin went through psychosurgery to change her behavior since they have an antisocial personality disorder and were very violent.
Lobotomy	a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion - controlling centers of the inner brain.	My cousin had a lobotomy where they drilled into their brain and cut her nerves.
Sigmund Freud	A psychologist who created psychoanalysis and studied heavily on how the unconscious affects people’s actions.	When I think about psychoanalysis, I think about Freud who created the field of study.
Carl Rogers	A humanistic psychologist who founded client-centered therapy and coined the term unconditional positive regard.	When I think about unconditional positive regard, I think about Carl Rogers who created the term.
Mary Cover Jones	The mother of behavior therapy who focused on unconditioning fear in people.	When I think about overcoming my phobias, I think of Mary Cover Jones.
Joseph Wolpe	A psychiatrist who created exposure therapy.	When I think about overcoming my phobias by forcing myself to confront it, I think of Joseph Wolpe and his exposure therapy.
B.F. Skinner	A behavior psychologist who created operant conditioning.	When I think about operant conditioning, I think about BF Skinner.
Albert Ellis	A psychologist who created Rational-Emotive Therapy and attempted to change the patient’s irrational thinking.	When I think about changing irrational thinking, I think about Albert Ellis and his rational-emotive therapy.
Aaron Beck	A cognitive psychologist who believed that you have to question patient’s illogical thoughts to fix their depression.	When I think about people questioning illogical thoughts, I think about Aaron Beck.