Exhaustive Study Guide: From the Neolithic Revolution to the Mongol Empire
The Neolithic Age and the Neolithic Revolution
The Early Neolithic Man:
Initially, humans were hunter-gatherers, moving from place to place in a nomadic lifestyle.
The primary motivation for movement was the search for food supplies.
Populations remained small because there were not enough resources to support "too many mouths to feed."
Man lived by chasing the food supply and staying on the move.
The Neolithic Revolution:
This period represents a major turning point in human history, marking a change in the way man lives.
Humans transitioned from a life of searching for food to producing a food surplus.
The result of the revolution was that man settled down rather than remaining nomadic.
Settlements were established by rivers, as water was a fundamental necessity for survival and growth.
Societal and Economic Changes:
The domestication of animals and the invention of farming were core components of this shift.
Increased efficiency in food production led to more free time for individuals.
The creation of a food surplus directly led to the development of social classes.
Characteristics of Civilization and Early Technology
Five Characteristics of Civilization:
Specialized Workers: People began to perform specific roles based on specialized labor.
Record Keeping: This is represented by scribes who wrote things down for the first time.
The ability to record data allowed people to predict agricultural needs, such as how much food to plant.
Advanced Technology: The introduction of new tools and systems to improve life.
Cuneiform: Recognized as the first form of writing, originating in Mesopotamia.
Complex Institutions: The development of organized systems including laws, government, religion, and schools.
Code of Hammurabi: One of the earliest examples of a written legal code.
Early River Valley Civilizations and Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia:
Known as the "land between two rivers," specifically the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers.
Located within the Fertile Crescent.
The region of Sumer is credited with creating cuneiform writing.
The Epic of Gilgamesh is noted as the first written story in cuneiform.
The Code of Hammurabi established laws for this civilization.
Trade was extensive with other river civilizations like Harappa in the Indus Valley.
Seals: These were used as labels for trading purposes.
Egypt:
Centered around the Nile River; it is stated that "No Nile, no Egypt."
Indus Valley:
Centered around the Ganges River and the Indus River.
Distinguished by predictable flooding; it was the only river system where flooding could be predicted accurately.
China:
Civilizations began along the Yellow River and the Yangzi River.
Classical Civilizations (600 BC to 600 AD)
General Features:
These civilizations set standards and precedents in architecture and government that are still relevant or used today.
Political rulers used religion to solidify their rule and maintain control.
They are characterized by their ability to "stand the test of time."
Governance and Law:
While they shared similarities in establishing political power, rulers varied in how they obtained and justified that power.
The Greco-Roman World
Greece:
Historically very decentralized.
The Greek city-states were not united until the time of Alexander the Great.
Rome:
Roman Republic: First to introduce the republic, a form of indirect democracy.
Centralization: The empire became very centralized under leaders like Julius Caesar, Augustus, Diocletian, and Constantine.
Religion and State: Under Constantine, Christianity was used to solidify political rule.
Leadership: Power was not hereditary; notable rulers included Diocletian, Augustus, and Constantine.
Splitting and Rebuilding: Prior to the fall of the empire, Diocletian split it into Eastern and Western halves. Constantine later put the empire back together.
Fall of the West: When the Western Empire fell, people migrated to the countryside (leading into the Middle Ages) or toward the Byzantine Empire.
The Byzantine Empire
Mission and Culture:
The Byzantine Empire sought to preserve Greco-Roman culture.
Recaptured much of the land lost when the original Roman Empire fell.
Justinian:
Described as the "Caesar of the Byzantine Empire."
Accomplishments included building churches, palaces, schools, and hospitals.
Constructed the church of the Hagia Sophia.
Constantinople:
Geographically located at the crossroads of trade, connecting Africa, Europe, and Asia.
Religion and Power:
A conflict for power between the Pope and the Byzantine Emperor led to the development of Eastern Orthodox Christianity.
Cyrillic Alphabet: Used to spread ideologies to Slavic and Russian peoples, helping preserve Greco-Roman culture.
The Middle Ages and Religious Interactions
The Crusades:
Described as the "most successful failure."
The Church was arguably the most powerful institution during this time.
The Holy Land was held by Muslims, who were experiencing a Golden Age.
European crusaders brought back spices and new ideas from Jerusalem.
Classical Civilizations in Asia
China – The Han Dynasty:
Highly centralized under Emperor Wudi.
Used Confucianism to solidify political rule; leadership was somewhat hereditary.
India:
Mauryan Empire: Very centralized under Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka used Buddhism to solidify his rule.
Gupta Empire: Decentralized in nature; Hinduism was the primary belief system.
World Belief Systems
Monotheistic Religions:
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: All believe in one God and have written sacred texts (the Bible, New Testament, Old Testament, and the Koran).
Christianity originated from Judaism.
Eastern and School of Thought:
Hinduism and Buddhism: Both focus on the elimination of desires.
Shintoism and Animism: Significant early belief systems.
Confucianism: A Chinese school of thought emphasizing that good government is essential.
Focuses on everyone knowing their place in society.
Filial Piety: Respect for elders.
Civil Service Exams: Used to select government officials.
Africa: Geopolitics and Trade
West Africa:
Comprised of inland states: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai.
Stateless societies initially existed without formal government or central authority; kinship groups ruled instead.
This environment helped create Timbuktu.
Mansa Musa:
Leader of Mali who converted to Islam and used it as a governing factor to solidify rule.
Very wealthy; undertook a religious pilgrimage to Mecca.
While in Mecca, he observed the effects of an Islamic Golden Age (architecture, libraries, teachers).
He brought architects and teachers back to Timbuktu to mirror those achievements, putting Mali "on the map."
West Africa benefited greatly from the gold and salt trade.
East Africa:
Known as the Swahili Coast along the Indian Ocean.
Bantu People: Nomadic and highly linguistic, speaking multiple dialects.
Syncretism: The combining of Islam with local African beliefs occurred through Arabic traders in the Indian Ocean. This was influenced by monsoon winds that aided trade.
The resulting culture was "Swahilized."
The Tang and Song Dynasties
Empress Wu (Wu Zetian):
Born in to a wealthy family; well-educated in music, history, politics, poetry, and calligraphy.
Became Emperor Taizong's concubine at age 14.
Promoted Buddhism as a universalizing religion and built monasteries and statues.
Great Cloud Sutra: Used to predict that a female monarch would be the reincarnation of the Maitreya Buddha to dispel disaster.
Diminished the power of the northwest aristocracy.
The Song Dynasty ():
Followed the Tang Dynasty (). Both are considered "China's Golden Age."
Inventions: Paper money (first use), gunpowder, the compass, and block printing. Also introduced tea drinking.
Commercial Growth: Massive growth in business and "cottage industries" (e.g., silk).
Champa Rice: A drought-resistant, labor-intensive strain from Vietnam that allowed China to feed its growing population.
The Grand Canal: Built during the Sui Dynasty, it connected the Yangtze and Yellow rivers, facilitating north-south transport, trade, and economic unification.
Japan and Feudalism
Taika Reforms:
An attempt to make Japan similar to China regarding land and taxation.
Failed due to resistance from the aristocracy and Buddhist monks. High taxes led to the impoverishment of farmers who became tenants of landowners.
Nara and Heian Periods:
The Nara capital was established. Influence from China began to decline or was "Japanized."
Heian Period: Cultural celebration through the eyes of women; the Fujiwara family controlled the political scene via intermarriage with the imperial family.
Japanese Feudalism:
Kamakura period marked the rise of feudalism where land was exchanged for protection.
The Samurai: Militaristic class holding ideals of loyalty, duty, and bravery.
Seppuku: Ritual suicide performed if a samurai failed to protect their master.
Shogunate: The military government headed by the Shogun.
The Mongol Empire (1200s)
Rise and Expansion:
Nomadic, fierce horsemen who were severely brutal in conquest.
United under Genghis Khan; after his death, the empire was divided into sections called Khanates.
Controlled a massive area of Eurasia (East Asia to Eastern Europe).
Pax Mongolia:
A period of "peace through violence."
Not considered a cultural golden age, but provided crucial stability on the Silk Roads.
This stability led to a significant increase in trade and cultural diffusion.
Increased interaction between diverse peoples (e.g., Marco Polo's travels).