The Second Triumvirate and the Rise of Augustus

The Second Triumvirate

  • Following Caesar's death, two main political factions emerged in Rome:
    • Caesar's murderers, known as "the Liberators."
    • Caesar's supporters.
  • Both groups publicly stated their intention to restore the Roman Republic.
  • Despite some discontent with Caesar's dictatorship, the majority of the public did not support his assassins.
  • Caesar's killers apparently lacked a clear plan for Rome's future.
  • A new civil war ensued, leading to the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC.
  • The Second Triumvirate consisted of:
    • Octavian (Caius Octavius): Caesar's great-nephew and designated heir.
    • Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius): Caesar's general and trusted associate.
    • Marcus Aemilius Lepidus: The commander of the cavalry.
  • The forces of the Triumvirate clashed with Caesar's murderers at Philippi, Greece, in 42 BC.
  • Caesar's murderers were defeated, and their leaders, Brutus and Cassius, died in battle.
  • After their victory, the triumvirs divided the Roman territories among themselves:
    • Antony took control of the eastern territories.
    • Octavian gained control over the western territories, including Italy.
    • Lepidus was given control of Africa, but he soon relinquished this position.
  • While in the east, Mark Antony began a love affair with Cleopatra in Egypt.
  • Octavian used this opportunity to spread rumors that Antony was acting like an eastern despot.
  • War broke out between the former allies, culminating in a decisive naval battle at Actium, Greece, in 31 BC.
  • Octavian's navy defeated Antony and Cleopatra.
  • Antony and Cleopatra subsequently committed suicide.
  • Octavian declared Egypt a Roman province under his direct personal control.

From Octavian to Augustus

  • In 29 BC, after returning to Rome, Octavian made a public announcement that he would return power to the Senate to restore the Republic.
  • The Senate then bestowed upon him the title of Augustus, meaning "glorious" in Latin.
  • The restoration of the Republic was largely a facade.
  • While the institutions and magistrates of the Republic were nominally restored, Augustus gradually accumulated all the most important positions:
    • He was named imperator (emperor) for life, making him the supreme commander of the military.
    • He served as consul for many years.
    • He held the position of plebeian tribune.
    • He served as censor.
    • He was appointed pontifex maximus (high priest).
  • Augustus was also offered the title of King but declined it, preferring to be called Princeps Civitatis, meaning "first among citizens" in Latin.
  • Through these titles, Augustus slowly established a system of veiled autocracy centered on himself, known as the Principate.