Foundations of US History: Colonization to Manifest Destiny

Early Republic, Colonial Foundations, and Economic Policy

• Foundational Eras Overview: The history of the United States transitions from $13$ coastal colonies into a continental power through four distinct phases: the early republic and policies, industrialization, the age of Jackson, and manifest destiny.

• Motivations for Exploration: The Age of Exploration was driven by three primary motives known as the "Three G’s":

  • God: Religious motivations.
  • Gold: Economic gain and wealth.
  • Glory: National and personal prestige.

• The Columbian Exchange: An unprecedented global transfer of goods, plants, animals, and diseases between the Old World and the New World following the Age of Exploration.

• Mercantilism: A restrictive economic system defined by the principle that colonies exist solely to generate profit for the mother country. In this system:

  • Colonies produce raw materials.
  • The mother country reaps all financial rewards from finished goods and trade control.

• Origins of the American Revolution: Following the expensive French and Indian War, Great Britain imposed heavy taxes on American colonists to pay off massive war debts. The colonists rebelled due to the rigid mercantilist system and their lack of representation in Parliament.

• Saratoga: This battle is recognized as the critical turning point of the Revolutionary War, shifting the conflict in favor of America.

• Early Ideological Clashes in Governance:

  • Thomas Jefferson: Championed a "hands-off" or "lazy" government philosophy known as Laissez-Faire, where the government remains out of the way of the people.
  • Supreme Court: Established the power of Judicial Review, which is the absolute authority of the court to declare laws unconstitutional. This created profound checks and balances within the new government.

• The Louisiana Purchase Paradox: During his presidency, Thomas Jefferson—a strict constructionist who believed the government could only do what was explicitly written in the Constitution—purchased the Louisiana Territory. This doubled the size of the country but required a "loose interpretation" of the Constitution, leading to intense criticism from opponents for contradicting his own Laissez-Faire views.

• The Monroe Doctrine ($1823$): A rigid policy warning European powers that there would be no more colonization in the Americas. This was symbolized by Uncle Sam with a "Keep Out" or "Hands Off" sign, marking the United States' role as a dominant power in the Western Hemisphere.

American Industrialization and Economic Regionalism

• Geographic and Economic Divide: As the nation expanded, two distinct economies emerged:

  • New England (The North): Experienced a boom in early industrialization, primarily powered by the fast-flowing water from its rivers.
  • The South: Remained fiercely entrenched in plantation agriculture, with a primary focus on cotton production.

• Impact of the Cotton Gin: The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney had dual consequences in the South: it triggered a staggering rise in cotton production and led to a tragic, massive increase in the population of enslaved people required to harvest it.

• The Lowell Factory Girls: In Lowell, Massachusetts, young women sought out grueling work in textile mills. These "factory girls" chose this work because it provided rare opportunities for independence, allowing them to earn their own money and attend educational lectures.

• The Erie Canal: This massive infrastructure project revolutionized national trade by creating a direct waterway linking western farmers to the markets of New York City ($NYC$). This connection turned New York City into an economic powerhouse virtually overnight.

The Age of Andrew Jackson

• Rise to Power: Andrew Jackson became a national hero at the Battle of New Orleans during the War of $1812$.

• The Election of $1824$: Despite his popularity, Jackson lost this election because he failed to secure a majority of the electoral votes. The decision was thrown to the House of Representatives, where he was defeated.

• The Election of $1828$: Jackson returned to win the presidency, ushering in an aggressive era of American populism.

• The Spoils System: A controversial practice initiated by Jackson where he fired existing government workers to reward his own loyal political supporters with lucrative jobs, regardless of their qualifications. This is summarized by the phrase: "To the victor go the spoils."

• The "King Andrew" Imagery: Political critics used a famous cartoon of Jackson dressed as a monarch trampling over the Constitution to highlight his unprecedented use and expansion of the presidential veto power.

• The National Bank Veto and the Panic of $1837$: Jackson vetoed the National Bank because he believed it favored the wealthy elite over the common man. This action caused systemic fallout, resulting in a national economic depression known as the Panic of $1837$.

• Native American Relations and the Trail of Tears: In the case Worcester v. Georgia, the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Cherokee sovereignty. Jackson ignored the ruling, an act of executive overreach and unconstitutional defiance that led to the Trail of Tears—a horrific, forced $2,000$-mile relocation of the Cherokee people.

Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion

• Definition of Manifest Destiny: A deeply ingrained, almost religious belief that it was America's literal job and fate to expansion civilization westward all the way to the Pacific Ocean.

• Drivers of Expansion (Push and Pull Factors):

  • Mountainmen: Paved the way by mapping rugged trails and harvesting pelts.
  • Texas Land Grants: Mexico invited Americans into Texas with massive land grants to boost population growth.
  • Oregon Fever: The economic depression caused by the Panic of $1837$ served as a "push factor," driving broke and desperate citizens to move west.

• Conflict with Mexico: President James Cape Polk utilized the ideology of Manifest Destiny to justify war with Mexico. The "Plucked Eagle" political cartoon represents Mexico after the war—stripped of its feathers and losing massive northern territories to the United States.

• The California Gold Rush ($1849$): Gold was discovered at Sutter’s Mill, triggering a massive population spike. This allowed California to bypass the usual territorial phase and enter the Union as a free state, as cemented by the Compromise of $1850$.

• Human Cost of Expansion: The primary cost of westward expansion and the growth of California was the horrific, systematic destruction of Native American communities who had occupied the land for centuries.

• The Slavery Debate: Every territorial expansion reignited the debate over the expansion of slavery. This led to legislative attempts to maintain balance, such as:

  • Missouri Compromise of $1820$: Established to maintain a balance of representation in Congress between slave and free states.
  • Texas Annexation: Delayed for years due to fierce political debates over slavery and the balance of power.

Summary Review Sheet Concepts

• Laissez-Faire: Thomas Jefferson's "hands-off" philosophy of a "lazy" government.
• Mercantilism: Economic policy where colonies exist for the mother country's profit.
• Judicial Review: Power of the Supreme Court to "declare laws unconstitutional"; empowers the Judicial Branch.
• Louisiana Purchase Criticism: Focuses on the requirement of a "loose interpretation" of the Constitution.
• New England Industry: Most influenced by waterpower from rivers.
• Cotton Gin Impact: Simultaneous rise in cotton production and slave population.
• Lowell Offering/Factory Girls: Women chose work for money and access to lectures.
• Erie Canal Significance: Connected western farmers to $NYC$ markets.
• Battle of New Orleans: Made Andrew Jackson a national hero.
• Spoils System: Practice of rewarding political supporters with jobs.
• Election of $1824$: Jackson lost because he did not win the majority of electoral votes.
• "King Andrew" Cartoon: Highlighted Jackson’s expansion of presidential power and veto use.
• National Bank Veto: Jackson believed it favored the wealthy; result was the Panic of $1837$.
• Manifest Destiny: The belief that it was America's "Job and Fate" to expand west.
• Missouri Compromise ($1820$): Purpose was to maintain balance in congressional representation.
• Monroe Doctrine ($1823$): Warned Europe against further colonization in the Americas; Uncle Sam "Hands Off!" sign.
• Trail of Tears: Forced $2,000$-mile journey; occurred after Jackson ignored Worcester v. Georgia.
• Mountain Men: Mapped trails and harvested pelts.
• Oregon Fever Push Factor: The Panic of $1837$ depression.
• Texas Land Grants: Offered by Mexico to increase population and growth.
• Texas Statehood Delay: Caused by debates over slavery and political balance.
• Plucked Eagle: Represents Mexico losing territory after the war.
• $1849$ Gold Rush: Caused a rapid population increase in California.
• Compromise of $1850$: Legislative agreement allowing California to enter as a free state.
• Human Cost of Expansion: Destruction of Native American communities.
• Saratoga: Official "turning point" of the Revolutionary War.
• Columbian Exchange: Global transfer of goods between the Old and New Worlds.
• Three G's: God, Gold, and Glory (motive for Age of Exploration).
• Post-War Taxation: Britain taxed colonists after the French and Indian War to pay off war debts.