Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States Notes

The American Hero Myth

  • Daniel Boone emerged as a cultural icon in America post-1787.
  • He represents the stereotypical frontier hero, akin to characters in The Last of the Mohicans.
  • These narratives promote frontiersmen as heroes and Indigenous peoples as obstacles or antagonists.

Misrepresentation of Indigenous Peoples

  • Both Boone and Bumppo (the protagonist in Cooper's novels) are often viewed as factual representations rather than fictional tales.
  • These stories justify colonial actions against Indigenous peoples, contributing to the misconception that their removal from land was necessary for progress.

Justifying Colonialism

  • Walt Whitman, as a newspaper editor, referred to Mexico derogatorily, suggesting Anglo-Saxons had a divine right to conquer and settle the land.
  • The belief in a racial hierarchy helped facilitate the US's expansionist policies.
  • Many writers, even those opposing the Mexican-American War, did not criticize the idea of Manifest Destiny.

Expansion and Its Consequence

  • Jefferson's dream of a nation across North America was realized through continued aggression toward Indigenous nations and territories.
  • Settler populations were encouraged to outnumber Indigenous peoples to claim statehood for new territories.

Resistance of Indigenous Nations

  • Indigenous groups like the Navajos, Apaches, and Comanches resisted US occupation, continuing the centuries-long tension.
  • The narrative of inevitable expansion is questioned by considering the ongoing resistance by Indigenous nations.

Civil War and Indigenous Perspective

  • Indigenous nations had varied responses to the Civil War, with some hoping for a Confederate victory to weaken US control.
  • Prominent tribes like the Cherokee and Muscogee signed treaties, battling against both Union and Confederate forces.
  • Ultimately, US military actions toward Indigenous populations worsened during and after the Civil War, leading to significant bloodshed.

Dakota Uprising and its Aftermath

  • The Dakota people uprisings in 1862 were a response to starvation and broken treaties. The US Army crushed the rebellion and executed many Dakota leaders afterwards.
  • Lincoln commuted the sentences of some men sentenced to death after the trials following the uprisings.

Sand Creek Massacre

  • Colonel John Chivington led a brutal attack on a peaceful camp of Cheyennes and Arapahos, killing hundreds in what became known as the Sand Creek Massacre.
  • An investigation into this atrocity saw no accountability for soldiers who committed war crimes.

Buffalo Soldiers and Indigenous Warfare

  • The Buffalo Soldiers, comprised of African American troops, participated in campaigns against Indigenous nations after the Civil War.
  • Their involvement highlights the complexity of racial dynamics within military expansion into Indigenous territories.

Decline of Buffalo Herds

  • The extermination of buffalo was both a tactical military strategy and an effort to undermine Indigenous resistance by destroying their primary resource.
  • By the end of the 19th century, mass slaughter left only a few hundred buffalo remaining in North America.

Native American Resistance to Allotment

  • The Dawes Act of 1887 aimed to dismantle tribal land ownership and imposed individual ownership on Native Americans, disproportionately benefiting white settlers.
  • The Curtis Act further stripped Indigenous nations of sovereignty, decimating their land base.

Consequences of the Allotment Acts

  • The loss of land during the allotment process translated into significant negative social and economic impacts on Indigenous communities.
  • Indigenous nations lost three-fourths of their land due to the Dawes and Curtis Acts, altering their lifestyle and leading to cultural disintegration.

The Indian Boarding School System

  • A policy of assimilation led to the establishment of Indian boarding schools designed to eradicate Native culture by isolating children from their families.
  • Students experienced severe discipline, physical abuse, and were often forbidden from practicing their culture, leading to psychological trauma.

Historical Narratives and Resistance

  • The narrative of American exceptionalism often disregards Indigenous perspectives and presents settlers as civilizers.
  • Indigenous resistance persists through various forms, from outright warfare to cultural retention and advocacy for rights and recognition.

The Persistence of Sovereignty

  • Indigenous nations continue to assert their rights and sovereignty despite centuries of oppression and land seizures.
  • Recent history shows ongoing efforts to reclaim sovereignty, navigate legal battles for land rights, and preserve cultural heritage against historical injustices.