Learning Theories: Skinner and Bandura

Introduction

• Instructor: Irene Tsang (irenetsang1510@gmail.com)

• Course: HPCS 4030

• Topic: Learning Theories to Personality - Skinner and Bandura (2024/25 Sem2)

Initial Discussion Points

• Think about:

  • Something you were forced to learn.

  • Something you decided to learn.

  • Something you learned by accident.

• Consider when these learning experiences occurred and whether you still recall how to do them.

• Reflect on your feelings about each learning process.

• Describe each learning process with three keywords and share your thoughts.

Two Major Assumptions of Learning Theory Approaches to Personality

• Nearly all behaviors are learned.

• Objectivity and rigor in the testing of clearly formulated hypotheses are crucial.

Learning Theory Approaches

• Empirical research is the cornerstone of theory and practice.

• Personality theory and applied practice should be based on principles of learning.

• Behavior is responsive to reinforcement variables in the environment and is more situation-specific than suggested by other personality theories.

• Rejection of the medical symptom-disease view of psychopathology and emphasis on basic principles of learning and behavior change.

Central Assumption of Classical Learning Theory to Personality

• Personality is a collection of conditioned responses.

Classical Conditioning

• A neutral stimulus is associated with a natural response.

Determinism

• Determinism is the belief that an event is caused by some prior event, with the cause being something that can be understood according to basic laws of science.

Classical Conditioning Elements

• Antecedent (前因): Precedes or comes before a behavior.

• Behavior (行為): Response of the individual.

• Consequence (結果): That which follows a behavior.

• Learning occurs through adjustment of Antecedent (A) and/or Consequence (C) to induce change in behavior (Allen & Cowdery, 2015).

Ivan Pavlov's "Psychic Reflex" - Before Conditioning

• Unconditioned Stimulus: Triggers an unconditioned response.

• Unconditioned Response: Natural response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Neutral Stimulus: Initially elicits no response.

Example:

• Presence of food leads to salivary secretion.

During Conditioning

• A neutral stimulus (e.g., bell tone) is presented along with the unconditioned stimulus (food).

• This pairing is repeated.

Example:

• Presence of food leads to salivary secretion + bell tone (neutral stimulus).

• Repeat.

After Conditioning

• The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus.

• The conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response.

Example:

• Bell ring leads to salivary secretion.

• $Conditioned Stimulus \rightarrow Conditioned Response$

• A new behavior is learned.

Operant Conditioning

• Behavior is followed by consequences.

• Learning occurs through adjusting antecedents and/or consequences to change behavior (Allen & Cowdery, 2015).

The Learning-Behavioral Approach to Study of Personality

• Operant Conditioning

• A response is increased or decreased due to reinforcement or punishment.

• Skinner's View: Focus on the relationship between behavior and the environment, neglecting mediating states of mind.

"We can follow the path taken by physics and biology by turning directly to the relation between behavior and the environment and neglecting supposed mediating states of mind. Physics did not advance by looking more closely at the jubilance of a falling body, or biology by looking at the nature of vital spirits, and we do not need to try to discover what personalities, states of mind, feelings, traits of character, plans, purposes, intentions really are in order to get on with a scientific analysis of behavior." - Skinner (1971)

Emphasis on Situational Specificity

• The behavioral perspective emphasizes external, environmental determinants and situational specificity in behavior.

How Environment Shapes Personality

• Environment (teachers, family, colleagues, friends/classmates) shapes the personality.

Skinner’s Views on Personality

• Structure: Outcome of reinforcements.

• Operants: Reinforcing events.

• Shaping: Reinforcing process.

• Behavioral Modification: Shaping of specified behavior.

Shaping Example:

• Shaping of a specific behavior such as pulling a shirt over the head.

  • Step 1: Push right arm up into sleeve.

  • Step 2: Push left arm up into sleeve.

  • Step 3: Pull shirt down.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Focus on the qualities of responses and their relationship to the rates and intervals at which they are reinforced.

Classical Conditioning Processes

• Acquisition: The strength of the conditioned response increases rapidly and then levels off near its maximum.

• Extinction: The conditioned response declines erratically until it’s extinguished.

• Spontaneous Recovery: After a “rest” period, the conditioned stimulus elicits a weakened conditioned response.

• Repeated presentations of the conditioned stimulus re-extinguish the conditioned response, but after another “rest” interval, a weaker spontaneous recovery occurs.

Learning Theory Principles

• Complex behavior is shaped through a process of successive approximation.

• Growth and development are understood in terms of schedules of reinforcement in acquiring and performing behavior.

Central Assumption of Operant Learning Theory to Personality

• Personality is a collection of shaped behaviors!

Behaviorism Perspective

• Behaviorists recognize that people have thoughts and feelings, but they view these as behaviors caused by the environment.

• There is no need to explain a person’s behavior in terms of his or her attitudes.

Operant Conditioning Analogy

• Operant conditioning shapes behavior as a sculptor shapes a lump of clay.

• The process can always be traced back to the original undifferentiated lump, with successive stages as small as desired.

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

• Involves giving or removing stimuli, which can be liked or disliked, to increase or decrease behavior.

Positive Reinforcement (正增強)

• Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus that increases the occurrence of that behavior.

• Example:

  • In the Skinner box experiment, food or sugar solution is delivered when the rat presses a lever.

  • Getting an award of achievement, a child who finishes homework receives a candy or sticker.

Negative Reinforcement (負增強)

• Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

• Example:

  • In the Skinner box experiment, a loud noise continuously sounds until the rat presses a lever.

  • A student who finishes class exercise on time will be exempted from a quiz.

Positive Punishment (懲罰)

• Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus.

• Example:

  • In the Skinner box experiment, introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease of targeted behavior.

  • A child who cannot finish homework will need to do extra exercise or detention.

Negative Punishment (withholding reinforcers) (取消權利)

• Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by removal of a favorable stimulus, resulting in a decrease in the occurrence of a behavior.

• Example:

  • In the Skinner box experiment, stopping the delivery of food or sugar solution when the rat does not engage in the target behavior.

  • If a child misbehaves, the parent takes away his toy car or cancels his favorite football practice.

Types of Reinforcement

• Positive: Presentation of a rewarding stimulus (positive reinforcer).

• Negative: Removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcer).

• Reinforcers (positive and negative) increase the frequency of an operant response.

Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary: Innately satisfying, without learning (e.g., food, water, sex).

• Secondary: Reinforcing power acquired through learning (e.g., certificates, money, grades, praise).

Example of Primary Reinforcer Use

• A man used to be very naughty when he was young. His father tried everything to control him, but it all failed. Finally, his father used a different approach – every time the boy behaved well, his father would take him to a restaurant; every time the boy misbehaved, his father would starve him a meal. The boy behaved increasingly better. The primary reinforcer is food.

Example of Secondary Reinforcer Use

• When a graduate student studied at Harvard University, he had a record of staying up 3 nights at the computer center writing his term papers. On the 4th day, the director of the computer center talked with him and said “you are one of the most hard-working students I have ever seen since I came to work here. Good for you!” The student smiled at his compliment. Then the director said: “You know what, 10 years ago, a young man from Seattle also set the same record as you had,… but then he found Harvard boring and left for home to start his own business on computers. I heard that he actually did quite well. If you ever meet this young man, please pass my regards to him. “What is this young man’s name”? The graduate student asked. “Bill Gates”, The director answered.

Comparison of Basic Processes in Classical and Operant Conditioning

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory (SQ)

• Concept of social learning.

• Observational learning is the central developmental process.

• Humans are active information processors.

• Learning involves mental processes, such as attention and memory, and may be learned through observation or imitation.

What is Observational Learning

• Learning results from observing the behavior of other people (called models).

• Observational learning could not occur unless cognitive processes were at work.

Processes of Observational Learning

• Attention (注意): Seeking a role model.

• Retention (保留): Remembering to imitate.

• Reproduction (行為再現): Capability to imitate.

• Motivation (酬賞): Reason for imitation.

Processes of Observational Learning - Classroom Example

• Attention: The observer pays attention to the role model. (Teacher gains students’ attention by presenting clear and interesting cues, highlighting the important points of the lesson.)

• Retention: The observer retains some memory of what is presented. (Once teacher has students’ attention, it is time to model the behavior she wants students to imitate, and gives them a chance to practice or rehearse; e.g. imitate the teacher’s model by writing the letter A.)

• Reproduction: The observer reproduces what is modeled. (Students try to match their behavior to the model’s; e.g. after seeing the letter A modeled or written by the teacher, and practicing it several times, students can reproduce the letter A, just like modeled by the teacher)

• Motivation: The observer is motivated to perform the act/ behavior/ task. (Students will imitate a model because they believe that doing so will increase their chances to be reinforced; e.g. getting praise from the teacher for matching the teacher’s model.) Therefore, the consequences giving to the observer determine his/her motivation to perform the task or not.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

• Emphasizes the importance of observation, imitation, and self-reward in the development of learning of social skills, personal interactions, and many other behaviors.

• It is not necessary to perform any observable behaviors or receive any external rewards to learn.

Bandura: The Social Cognitive Theory

• Self Efficacy: The extent to which we believe in ourselves in achieving the expected behavioral changes.

• Studies show that self-efficacy beliefs can help to overcome various psychological problems, such as depression, PTSD, test anxiety, phobias, substance abuse, and bereavement.

• $can \space do + can \space choose \rightarrow motivation$

Central Assumption of Social Learning Theory to Personality

• Personality is a collection of desired imitations!

Strengths and Limitations of Learning Theories

• Strengths:

  • Emphasis on systematic research and theory development.

  • Emphasis on the role of environmental variables in influencing behavior.

  • Emphasis on a pragmatic approach to treatment which can lead to important new developments.

• Limitations:

  • Oversimplified personality and neglects important phenomena.

  • Lacks a single, unified theory; gap between theory and practice.

  • Requires further evidence to support claims of treatment effectiveness.

Steps in a Self-Modification Program

• Step 1: Gather baseline data.

  • Determine initial level of response.

  • Identify possible controlling antecedents and consequences.

• Step 3: Design your program.

  • Select strategies to increase or decrease response strength.

• Step 4: Execute your program.

Summary of Learning Theories

• Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an unconditioned stimulus.

  • $CS (Tone) + US (Meat \space powder) \rightarrow CR (Salivation) + UR$

• Operant Conditioning (Skinner): Responses are strengthened or weakened by favorable or unfavorable consequences.

  • $Response (Press \space lever) \rightarrow Rewarding \space or \space aversive \space stimulus \space presented \space or \space removed (Food \space delivery \space or \space shock)$

• Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by observing a model's behavior and its consequences.

  • $Response(Bargain \space assertively) \rightarrow Rewarding \space stimulus(Good\space buy \space on \space car)$

References

• Kail, R. V., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (2013). Human development: A life-span view. Cengage Learning.

• Rosenthal, T. L., & Zimmerman, B. J. (1978). Social learning and cognition. Academic Press.

• Watson, J. B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. Psychological Review, 20(2), 158–177. doi: 10.1037/h0074428

• Weiten, W. (2017). Psychology: Themes And Variations. Cengage Learning.