Unit 5.1 and 5.2

Definition:
- Intellectual movement characterized by the application of new understanding methods to both the natural world and human relationships.
- It focuses on:
- Rationalism:
  - Asserts that reason, rather than emotion or external authority, is the most reliable source of true knowledge.
- Empiricism:
  - Suggests that true knowledge is derived from sensory experiences, primarily through rigorous experimentation.
Enlightenment emerged from the Scientific Revolution in Europe, which revolutionized the approach to science and knowledge acquisition.

Scientists during this period rejected biblical and religious authority and instead employed reason to understand the workings of the world.
Notable scientific breakthroughs included:
- Understanding the internal workings of the human body.
The Enlightenment built upon scientific and rationalistic foundations, extending their application to human society and questioning traditional beliefs, particularly the role of religion.

Founded in European Christian contexts, where Christianity had long been intertwined with state power.
Christianity as a revealed religion:
- Contains truths revealed by God, with commands that are not to be questioned.
- Authority transitions from external (God) to internal (individual belief).

Deism:
- Popular belief among Enlightenment thinkers that posits the existence of a creator who does not interfere post-creation.
Atheism:
- Complete rejection of religious beliefs or the notion of divine entities.

Individualism:
- Asserts the individual human as the basic unit of society, prioritizing personal identity over collective groups.
Natural Rights:
- Concept that individuals are born with certain rights (e.g., life, liberty, property), as articulated by John Locke, which are endowed by God and thus cannot be infringed by governments.
Social Contract:
- The idea that societies, recognizing their natural rights, must create governments to protect those rights. This inherently includes the right to overthrow a government that fails to do so.

Major Revolutions:
- Influenced revolutions including the American, French, Haitian, and Latin American revolutions.
Suffrage Expansion:
- Rights to vote evolved over time:
  - 1776: Restricted to white land-owning men.
  - 1800s: Expanded to all white males.
  - 1870: Extended to black males.
Abolition of Slavery:
- Significant movement leading to the abolition of slavery, most notably in Great Britain.
End of Serfdom:
- The transition from agrarian to industrial economies rendered serfs increasingly unnecessary, affecting their status.
Calls for Women's Suffrage:
- Women’s rights movements emerged, advocating for equality in various domains.
- The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 was a pivotal event calling for a constitutional amendment for women's voting rights.
Enslaved Contributions to Abolition:
- Enslaved individuals played vital roles in the abolition movement, exemplified by the 1831 Great Jamaica Revolt.

Rise of Nationalism:
- Concept defined by a shared sense of identity based on language, religion, social customs, and a common desire for territory.
- Different from prior historical context where diverse groups coexisted within large states.
Political Dissent:
- Increased dissatisfaction with monarchical and imperial rule, often leading to revolts.
- Example: Safavid Empire's harsh taxation inciting rebellion from nomadic groups, weakening the state.
New Ways of Thinking:
- Emergence of new ideologies and government structures inspired by Enlightenment thinkers:
  - Popular Sovereignty:
  - Asserts that governing power resides with the people.
  - Democracy:
  - The principle that citizens have rights to vote and influence government policies.
  - Liberalism:
  - An ideology promoting civil rights, representative government, property protection, and economic freedom.

Initiation: 1786, set against the backdrop of British colonial rule over 13 American colonies.
Resulted from a unique cultural, governmental, and economic evolution independent from Britain.
Post-Seven Years' War, Britain imposed taxes to recover debts, leading to colonial unrest and the adoption of Enlightenment ideals, notably reflected in the Declaration of Independence.
With support from France, American independence was achieved in 1783, setting a global precedent for overthrowing tyranny and establishing republican governance.

Initiation: 1789, catalyzed primarily by returning soldiers from the American Revolution who were inspired by democratic principles.
Tensions escalated with King Louis XVI's attempts to consolidate control to pay debts, leading to rebellion and the establishment of a republic.
Key documents, such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, encapsulated Enlightenment ideas around natural rights and popular sovereignty.

Initiation: 1791, characterized by enslaved populations rallying around French revolutionary calls for liberty and equality.
Leadership: Toussaint Louverture led the revolts, ultimately defeating French forces to establish the second republic in the Western Hemisphere and the first black-led government in the region.

Influenced by Enlightenment thoughts permeating Spanish and Portuguese colonies in Central and South America.
The Creole class:
- Individuals of European descent born in the Americas, who resented the privileged status of the Peninsulares (European-born Spaniards).
Discontent surged following Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, destabilizing colonial governance and leading to revolutions.
Noteworthy figure Simón Bolívar encapsulated Enlightenment principles in his Letter from Jamaica, advocating for popular sovereignty and self-rule.

The fragmentation of states in Italy and Germany led to movements where shared national identities aimed for unification under single governmental entities.