Notes for Digging into Archaeology: Introduction to Anthropological Archaeology

Introduction to Anthropological Archaeology

  • By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
    • Describe the focus of anthropology and its sub-disciplines
    • Characterize the anthropological approach and methods used to gather information
  • Public exposure to archaeology comes from museums, science magazines, TV shows, and films, shaping stereotypes about archaeologists.
  • Archaeology is a sub-discipline of anthropology, the study of humankind.
  • Anthropology studies all humans, in all times, at all places, and is divided into four sub-disciplines:
    • Biological anthropology: studies humans from a biological perspective, including biological variation, primatology (lemurs, monkeys, apes), human fossils, and evolution.
    • Cultural anthropology: studies humans culturally; culture = learned behaviors of a group (languages, foods, housing, beliefs, customs, and more); data collection primarily via participant observation (living with, observing, asking questions of, and engaging with people).
    • Linguistic anthropology: examines linguistic aspects of human cultures; branches include structural linguistics (patterns in sound, structure, grammar), historical linguistics (how languages change over time), and sociolinguistics (social aspects of language).
    • Archaeology: studies material culture—items people made, modified, and used in the past—to understand ancestral cultures; asks questions about past societies using material remains rather than observations of living participants.
  • Applied anthropology is sometimes considered the fifth sub-discipline. It involves applying anthropological theory to real-world problems:
    • Forensic anthropology applies principles of biological anthropology to identifying human skeletons in crimes (popular in media).
    • Archaeologists conducting surveys and excavations in construction contexts apply archaeological theory to real-world settings.
  • These sub-disciplines are united by:
    • A shared interest in humans
    • The use of the scientific method
    • A holistic perspective
  • The holistic perspective in anthropology emphasizes that all aspects of human biology and culture are interrelated and that developments in one area affect others across the four sub-disciplines.
  • This textbook focuses on archaeology and how it acquires knowledge about humans through material culture, fieldwork, and data from multiple sources to infer how people lived and adapted to their environments.

The Anthropological Approach, Methods, and Scope

  • Together, the scientific method, fieldwork, and a holistic perspective define the anthropological approach.
  • The scientific method:
    • A process by which scientists ask questions, collect data, test hypotheses, and gain knowledge about the natural world.
    • Common description includes four basic elements: observation, hypotheses, experimentation/data collection, analysis, and conclusions. Note: the text also lists five elements (observation, hypotheses, experimentation/data collection, analysis, conclusions) and describes the process as cyclical rather than linear, with hypotheses revised after data collection and new technologies altering initial assumptions.
    • The cycle is iterative: as we learn more, we generate new questions and adjust methods.
  • Fieldwork:
    • The hallmark of anthropological study: data collection in the real world—at living groups or at archaeological sites.
    • Some data are analyzed in the field; other data are analyzed later in laboratories, sometimes years after collection.
    • Fieldwork typically involves long hours of observation of subjects (cultural/linguistic anthropology) or, in biological anthropology, a troop of baboons, etc.
    • In archaeology, fieldwork mainly involves surveying landscapes to locate past human activity, followed by excavation and study.
  • Holistic perspective:
    • The understanding that all aspects of human biology and culture are interconnected.
    • Biological makeup (e.g., large brains) enables complex cultures; developments in one area influence questions in other areas.
    • The textbook aims to help you understand archaeology as a discipline that uses material culture to infer human behavior, adaptation, and history.
  • Key takeaway: Archaeology integrates field data from material remains with broader anthropological concepts to build a comprehensive picture of past humans.

Terms You Should Know

  • anthropology
  • anthropological approach
  • applied anthropology
  • archaeology
  • biological anthropology
  • cultural anthropology
  • culture
  • fieldwork
  • historical linguistics
  • holistic perspective
  • linguistic anthropology
  • material culture
  • participant observation
  • scientific method
  • sociolinguistics
  • structural linguistics

Study Questions

  • What are the four sub-disciplines of anthropology and how do they relate to the holistic nature of the field?
  • How are cultural anthropology and archaeology similar? How are they different?
  • How do anthropologists collect data?
  • Apply what you have learned about anthropologists to answer the following question: How can anthropologists use or be informed by the scientific method since most anthropologists do not generally conduct “traditional” experiments?

Activity 1.1: What Is an Archaeologist?

  • Authors: Amanda Wolcott Paskey and AnnMarie Beasley Cisneros
  • Context: Students often have preconceived images of archaeologists (e.g., Indiana Jones, Lara Croft).
  • Task: Illustrate your current idea of what an archaeologist looks like and where they work.
  • Part 1: Create an illustration using drawing, painting, or cut-out images to show:
    • the person
    • attire and accessories, including tools
    • the environment in which they work
  • Part 2: Write an explanation of why the archaeologist looks the way they do and where these ideas came from, addressing:
    • all elements of the illustration (clothes, tools, environment, activities, hair/style, age, gender, ethnicity, hobbies, friends)
    • why these characteristics are important
    • sources of your ideas (previous classes, science shows, video games, being an anthropology major, etc.)

Activity 1.2: Scientific Method and Article Analysis

  • Author: Jess Whalen
  • Theme: How archaeologists examine human activity using the scientific method, a circular process of testing predictions, revising hypotheses, and retesting.
  • Replication: Essential; discoveries must be replicated by multiple researchers before asserting a pattern or explanation.
  • Part 1: Identify the Scientific Method in a given article or study:
    • Read provided materials (abstract/full study/chart, etc.).
    • Reconstruct how the study followed the scientific method.
    • Consider:
    • What predictions (hypotheses) were made?
    • What is the value of the research? How does it help us understand humans today and in the past?
    • Tasks:
    1. Summarize the article (title, authors, etc.).
    2. Fill in a chart with as much as possible:
      • Scientific method step
      • Information you can piece together
      • Issue observed
      • Hypothesis
      • Testing methods
    3. How does the information help us understand more about humans and human behavior? Consider broader implications for science and humanity; discuss potential usefulness to industries or organizations.
  • Part 2: Annotated Bibliography
    • Purpose: Brief summaries of articles or scientific texts.
    • Instructions:
    • Summarize in paragraph form the results of the study from Part 1.
    • Refer to the study by last name of the author(s) and year (e.g., “a study by Whalen and Ozolins (2017) reported that…”).
    • Include what the study examined and its findings in a clear, concise manner.
    • Also consider what questions remain unexamined or should be followed up.

Part 3: The Literature Review

  • Purpose: Understand the state of research on a topic before testing an observation.
  • Steps: 1) Conduct a literature search for prior studies (use bibliography from the study or databases to find related works: scholarly articles, books, dissertations, conference proceedings). 2) For each selected work, write an annotated bibliography using the Part 2 format. 3) Write an introduction for the collection of reviewed literature that briefly summarizes all pieces in a single cohesive paragraph. In this paragraph, describe what was studied in each piece and its findings using one or two sentences, referencing studies by last names and year (e.g., “In a study by Kimble and Jones (2018)…”).
    • Plan the paragraph for cohesion and compare similarities and differences among studies.
      4) Identify gaps in the literature and propose useful directions for future research.

Connections, Implications, and Real-World Relevance

  • The anthropological approach (science, fieldwork, holistic view) underpins how archaeologists gather and interpret data from material culture.
  • Real-world applications include:
    • Forensic anthropology: applying biological anthropology to identify human remains in crime contexts.
    • Construction archaeology: archaeological surveys and excavations related to development projects.
  • The holistic approach ensures integration across biological, cultural, linguistic, and archaeological data to form a comprehensive understanding of past and present human behavior.
  • Ethical and practical implications (implicit in applied contexts): careful handling of human remains, working with contemporary communities in ethnographic settings, and balancing development needs with cultural heritage preservation. The transcript emphasizes practical applications but does not provide explicit ethical discussions; consider this an area for further study in course materials.

Summary of Key Concepts

  • Anthropology as a four-sub-discipline framework (biological, cultural, linguistic, archaeology) plus applied anthropology as a potential fifth area.
  • Archaeology’s focus on material culture to infer past human behavior, rather than relying on observations of living participants.
  • The anthropological approach combines the scientific method, fieldwork, and holistic thinking to understand humans.
  • Fieldwork varies by sub-discipline, from cultural/linguistic observation to archaeological landscape surveys.
  • The scientific method in anthropology is a cyclical, iterative process, with replication ensuring reliability.
  • The literature review and annotated bibliography are essential steps in scientific research to situate new work within existing knowledge and identify future directions.
  • Activities 1.1 and 1.2 encourage analyzing stereotypes of archaeologists and practicing scientific-method thinking on real studies.
  • Real-world relevance includes forensic science and heritage management in development projects.
  • Important terms to remember: anthropology, anthropological approach, applied anthropology, archaeology, biological anthropology, cultural anthropology, culture, fieldwork, historical linguistics, holistic perspective, linguistic anthropology, material culture, participant observation, scientific method, sociolinguistics, structural linguistics.