Lecture 19- From a War for the Union to a War to Emancipate
Key Learnings
The North had substantial advantages over the South in the Civil War, but the South also had some advantages.
President Lincoln initially viewed the Civil War as a war to preserve the Union, not to end slavery.
As the war progressed, Lincoln realized that making it a war for slavery was essential to win and preserve the Union.
Background
The previous lecture discussed the beginning of the Civil War, including Lincoln's election and the secession of the Deep South.
Economic reasons, culture, honor, and Southern identity played a role in the decision to secede.
Political realities, such as the loss of control in Congress and the potential shift in the Supreme Court, also contributed to secession.
Lincoln's reaction to the attack on Fort Sumter led to a second wave of secession by the Upper South.
The Civil War as the First Modern War
The Civil War is considered by many to be the first modern war due to its scale, technology, and casualties.
Large armies confronted each other with weapons created by the Industrial Revolution.
The war resulted in unprecedented casualties, with about a million casualties and more than 750,000 deaths.
56,000 soldiers died in prison camps due to disease and poor conditions.
One in thirteen soldiers lost a limb, leading to advancements in prosthetic limbs. Notably, figures like Confederate General Stonewall Jackson's amputation spurred innovation in prosthetic design and functionality.
The number of deaths in the Civil War exceeded all American deaths in all other US wars combined.
Translated to today's population, it would be equivalent to about 10,000,000 deaths.
The distinction between military and civilian targets vanished, marking a hallmark of modern warfare. The concept of "total war" emerged, affecting not only soldiers but also civilians through tactics like destroying infrastructure and resources.
Union forces under Sherman waged a total war against the Southern people to break their will to resist. Sherman's March to the Sea is a key example, devastating Georgia's landscape and economy.
The Civil War presaged the horrors of twentieth-century wars. The large-scale mobilization, industrial warfare, and targeting of civilian resources foreshadowed the world wars.
Advantages of the North
Larger Population: The North had a population of about 22,000,000 people, while the Confederate states had about 9,000,000, with 4,000,000 being slaves.
The North mobilized about 50% of its men, while the South mobilized 80%. This mobilization difference underscores the immense strain on the South's white population.
Industrial Capacity: The North had more than 10 times the industrial capacity of the South. The North's factories produced essential war materials such as weapons, ammunition, and supplies, providing a crucial advantage.
One Connecticut County produced firearms valued at 10 times the entire Southern capacity. This statistic highlights the vast disparity in manufacturing capabilities.
Northern soldiers were better fed, armed, and clothed. Better supplies boosted morale and endurance, contributing to the Union's sustained war effort.
Transportation: The North had a better transportation network, with 80% of all railroad miles in the Northern States. This extensive railway system facilitated the rapid movement of troops and supplies.
Troops and supplies could move more efficiently. Efficient logistics allowed the North to reinforce positions and maintain supply lines more effectively than the South.
Financing: The North had four times the bank deposits of the South and was a far wealthier society. This financial stability allowed the Union to fund the war effort through taxes, bonds, and loans.
The South printed money, leading to astronomical inflation. Inflation severely hampered the South's ability to purchase supplies and maintain its economy.
Political: The North did not have to create a new government. This stability allowed the Union to focus on the war effort without the distractions of building new institutions.
The North had better political leadership, particularly in President Lincoln. Lincoln's leadership was crucial in maintaining unity, navigating political challenges, and articulating the Union's goals.
Advantages of the South
Military Leadership: The South had better corps officers, general officers, and lower unit officers, particularly at the outset of the war. Superior leadership allowed the Confederacy to achieve early victories despite its material disadvantages.
Robert E. Lee was an extraordinary general who out-generaled the northern generals. Lee's tactical brilliance and ability to inspire his troops made him a formidable opponent.
Home Court Advantage: Most of the battles were fought in the South. Fighting on familiar terrain allowed the South to leverage local knowledge and logistical advantages.
The South only had to defend themselves, making their military goal more achievable. A defensive strategy conserved resources and exploited the South's geographic advantages.
Technology: The rifled musket gave a significant advantage to the defending party. The increased range and accuracy of rifled muskets made defensive positions much stronger.
Rifled guns were deadly accurate up to 600 yards. This accuracy forced attacking forces to endure heavy casualties, often making advances very costly.
Northerners suffered higher casualties due to the advantage of the rifled musket. High casualty rates impacted morale and public support for the war in the North.
Dwindling Advantages
The South's advantages dwindled over time, while their disadvantages increased. As the war progressed, the North's superior resources and manpower began to overwhelm the South.
The North's experienced officers improved, and some of the great Southern generals died. The loss of key leaders like Stonewall Jackson and the maturation of Union commanders shifted the balance of power.
The industrial disadvantage and the North's naval superiority hurt the South in the long run. The Union blockade strangled the Southern economy, limiting its ability to import supplies and export goods.
War in the Eastern Theater
Most of the fighting took place between Washington DC and Richmond, Virginia. The Eastern Theater was the primary focus of the war, marked by intense and frequent battles.
The North quickly moved to establish a blockade of Southern sea ports. The blockade aimed to cut off the Confederacy from international trade, weakening its economy.
The North had difficulty using its overwhelming force early on due to military leadership and mobilization challenges. Ineffective leadership and logistical issues hampered the Union's ability to capitalize on its advantages.
The first major engagement was the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas), which ended in a southern victory. This early defeat shocked the North and demonstrated the need for better training and leadership.
George McClellan was a great organizer but a poor field commander. McClellan's inability to take decisive action frustrated Lincoln and prolonged the war.
The Peninsula Campaign in 1862 aimed to take Richmond but failed due to McClellan's slow approach. The failure of the Peninsula Campaign was a major setback for the Union.
War in the Western Theater
The North was in control nearly the entire time, led by Ulysses S. Grant. Grant's aggressive strategy and determination led to significant Union victories in the West.
Grant captured most of the Western Confederate strong points, including New Orleans and the Mississippi River. These victories significantly weakened the Confederacy and opened vital supply lines for the Union.
Vicksburg was captured in July of 1863, giving the Union control of the Mississippi River. The capture of Vicksburg effectively split the Confederacy in two.
The war in the West also involved indigenous peoples, with about 200,000 enlisting on both sides. Indigenous involvement added another complex layer to the conflict, with tribes often divided in their loyalties.
The Civil War exacerbated old divisions within the tribes, such as the Cherokee nation. These divisions had long-lasting impacts on tribal governance and social structures.
Motivations and Objectives of the War
Lincoln initially saw the war as a war for the Union, not about slavery. Lincoln's primary goal at the outset was to preserve the Union, and he sought to avoid alienating border states that still practiced slavery.
He believed that secession was not an option and needed support from Northern Democrats and border states. Maintaining the support of these groups was crucial for a united war effort.
Lincoln's position was to save the Union without freeing the slaves, moderating his personal views. He understood the political sensitivities surrounding slavery and the need for a broad coalition.
As the war progressed, Lincoln began to consider how freeing the slaves could be used as a tool to win the war. Emancipation could deprive the Confederacy of its labor force and gain support from abolitionists and international allies.
Abolitionists stepped up their pressure, suggesting that emancipation would help win the war. Figures like Frederick Douglass argued that making the war about slavery would give the Union a moral advantage.
Lincoln concluded that freeing the slaves was a political and military necessity. He recognized that emancipation could weaken the Confederacy and strengthen the Union's position.
He began to draft the Emancipation Proclamation but needed a major war victory first. A significant Union victory would provide the necessary momentum and legitimacy for such a bold move.
The Battle of Antietam and the Emancipation Proclamation
After defeating McClellan in the South, Lee invaded the North in the fall of 1862. Lee's invasion of Maryland aimed to gain recognition for the Confederacy and potentially sway European powers to offer support.
The Battle of Antietam was the bloodiest day in American history, with 23,000 casualties. The immense loss of life shocked the nation and underscored the brutal nature of the war.
McClellan defeated Lee but failed to capitalize on the victory, allowing the Southern army to retreat. McClellan's cautious approach prevented a decisive Union victory and prolonged the war.
Lincoln used the victory to issue the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862. The Proclamation was a strategic move to change the war's focus and weaken the Confederacy.
The Proclamation set an ultimatum for the South, warning that slavery would be abolished in areas of insurrection on 01/01/1863. This ultimatum was designed to pressure the Confederacy into surrendering.
This allowed Lincoln to blame the South for freeing the slaves and maintain support among white northerners. By framing emancipation as a consequence of Southern actions, Lincoln minimized backlash from those opposed to abolition.
The Proclamation only abolished slavery in areas still in insurrection, allowing border states to keep their slaves. This provision was intended to retain the loyalty of the border states to the Union.
On 01/01/1863, the Proclamation went into effect, and the US government committed to ending slavery in the Southern states. This marked a turning point in the war, transforming it into a struggle for human freedom.
The Civil War stopped being a war to save the Union and became a war to end slavery. This shift in focus galvanized abolitionist support and altered the moral calculus of the conflict.
Ramifications of the Emancipation Proclamation
Diplomatic Success: Made it politically impossible for Britain to support the South. British public opinion, influenced by abolitionist sentiment, made it untenable for the government to recognize the Confederacy.
Encouraged slaves to run away: Estimated 20% of Southern slaves ran away to the Northern lines. This mass exodus deprived the Confederacy of vital labor and provided the Union army with valuable intelligence.
Increased Union Army: An estimated 186,000 black troops served in the Union army. Black soldiers played a crucial role in securing Union victory, demonstrating their courage and commitment to freedom.
Black soldiers fought bravely but faced discrimination and higher casualty rates. Despite their contributions, black soldiers often received unequal pay and treatment.
Shifted the meaning of the civil war: Now it was clearly a war over slavery, and both sides knew it. This transformation clarified the moral stakes of the conflict and galvanized support for the Union cause.
Dissent in the North and the Election of 1864
The war and Lincoln's wartime policies divided opinion in the North. The long duration and high cost of the war led to growing discontent and opposition to Lincoln's policies.
Volunteers for the army dropped, leading to a draft in 1863, which was controversial and unpopular. The draft was seen as unfair, particularly by those who could not afford to buy exemptions.
The New York City draft riots resulted in widespread unrest and over 100 deaths. These riots highlighted the deep divisions within Northern society over the war and conscription.
Despite suspending some civil liberties, Lincoln insisted on holding an election in 1864. Holding the election demonstrated Lincoln's commitment to democratic principles, even in wartime.
The Republican party nominated Lincoln, supporting a constitutional amendment outlining slavery. The proposed amendment signaled the Republican party's commitment to ending slavery permanently.
Lincoln picked Andrew Johnson as his VP, a Democrat from Tennessee. This choice aimed to broaden the appeal of the Republican ticket and unite the country.
The Democratic Party nominated McClellan, who campaigned on ending the civil war. McClellan's platform appealed to those who were weary of the war and sought a negotiated peace.
The election turned into a referendum on the war, and Lincoln won decisively. Lincoln's victory signaled a mandate for continuing the war until the Confederacy was defeated.
Problems in the Confederacy
Jefferson Davis lacked Lincoln's statesmanship, and his centralized power became unpopular. Davis's leadership style alienated many Southerners and exacerbated internal divisions.
The South also instituted a draft, which was unpopular due to exemptions for large slave owners. These exemptions fueled resentment among poorer Southerners who were more likely to be conscripted.
Economic problems, high inflation, and famine set in across the South. The Union blockade and mismanagement of resources led to severe economic hardship in the Confederacy.
By 1863, the South was running out of soldiers and considered arming slaves. This desperate measure reflected the Confederacy's dwindling manpower and the growing recognition of slavery's unsustainability.
With the war becoming a war to end slavery, the chances of the South winning diminished. The moral and political shift against slavery made it increasingly difficult for the Confederacy to gain international support.
Conclusion
The decisive year of 1864 would ultimately decide the fate of the South. The events of 1864, including key military victories and political developments, sealed the Confederacy's defeat.
The story will be continued in the next lecture.