Modern History of Ethiopia Study Guide

Learning Outcomes and Contents of Modern Ethiopian History

• Modern State Formation: Discussing the chronological process of establishing the modern Ethiopian empire.

• gb+6Long Distance Trade: Sketching the location of historical trade routes and analyzing mediums of exchange.

• Outside World Relations: Analyzing the relationship between Ethiopia and foreign powers.

• Defending Sovereignty: Appreciating the efforts of Ethiopians to defend against external aggression from the Ottoman Turks, Egyptians, Mahdists, Fascist Italy, and Somalia.

Formation of the Modern Empire State

The Reign of Emperor Tewodros II ($1855$-$1868$)

• Vision of Unity: Tewodros II aimed to unify Ethiopia under a single king, seeking to end the "Era of Princes" where strong vassals/regional lords held power.

• Key Military Campaigns for Unification:

  • Battle of Guramba ($Nov.\,27,\,1852$): Kassa Mercha (future Tewodros II) defeated Dajjach Goshu Zewude, the lord of Gojjam.

  • Battle of Gorgora Bichen ($April\,12,\,1853$): Kassa crushed four high-ranking vassals belonging to Ras Ali II and Dajjach Webe of Semen.

  • Battle of Ayshal ($June\,29,\,1853$): Ras Ali II was defeated. This victory symbolized the end of the Era of Princes.

  • Battle of Darasge ($Feb.\,8,\,1855$): Kassa defeated Ras Wube.

• Coronation: Immediately following the Battle of Darasge, Kassa was crowned Emperor Tewodros II at Darasge Mariam church by Abuna Salama.

• Southward Expansion: Following initial victories, he targeted Wollo and Shawa.

  • Capture of Maqdalla ($Sept.\,12,\,1855$): Temporarily ended the Wollo campaign.

  • Battle of Barakat ($Nov.\,1855$): Shawan forces were defeated.

• Administrative Style: He appointed local figures to maintain control: Dajjach Kassa Subagadis (Tegre), Dajjach Liban Amade and Amade Ali (Wollo), and Hayla-Mikael Sahla-Sellassie (Shawa).

• Challenges: Widespread rebellions occurred in Gojjam (Tadla Gwalu), Walqayt (Tesso Gobeze), Lasta (Wag Shum Gobeze), Shawa (Sayfu Sahla-Sellasie), and Wollo (Dajjach Liban Amade and Amade Bashir).

The Succession and Emperor Yohannes IV ($1872$-$1889$)

• Rise of Kassa Mercha: After Tewodros II died, Wag Shum Gobeze was crowned Emperor Takla-Giyorgis. Kassa Mercha of Tegre refused to submit.

• Battle of Assam ($July\,11,\,1871$): Near Adwa, Kassa Mercha defeated Takla-Giyorgis.

• Coronation: On $January\,21,\,1872$, Kassa ascended the throne as Emperor Yohannes IV.

• Policy of Autonomy: Yohannes IV was willing to tolerate strong regional governors with high degrees of autonomy if they recognized his imperial superiority.

• Relations with Menilek of Shawa:

  • Menilek challenged Yohannes by crossing into Wollo and establishing a base at Warra Illu.

  • Leche Agreement ($March\,20,\,1878$): After Yohannes entered Shawa, Menilek submitted. Terms included: Menilek accepted Yohannes’ over-lordship, agreed to pay annual tribute, supplied the imperial army, and renounced the title "King of Kings" (but kept the title "King").

• Policy of Equilibrium: Yohannes supported Adal Tessema of Gojjam as a counterweight to Menilek. In $1881$, Adal was made King Takla-Haymanot and governor of Gojjam and Kaffa.

• Battle of Embabo ($June\,6,\,1882$): Menilek defeated Takla-Haimanot, gaining mastery over the southwest and upsetting Yohannes’ policy of equilibrium.

The Reign of Emperor Menilek II ($1889$-$1913$)

• Methods of Unification: Menilek II used both peaceful submission and armed resistance.

• Gurage Incorporation ($1875$-$1876$):

  • Northern Gurage (Kestane): Submitted peacefully due to geographical proximity, religious affinity, and fear of Oromo threats.

  • Western Gurage: Resisted under Hasan Enjamo of Qabena. Resistance was broken by Ras Gobena Dache in $1888$.

• The Gibe Oromo and Southwest: Following the Battle of Embabo, Kumsa Moreda (Leqa Naqamite), Joti Tullu (Leqa Qellam), and Abba Jifar II (Jimma) submitted peacefully between $1882$ and $1886$.

• Arsi Resistance: Faced strong resistance using spears and arrows against firearms. Menilek personally led many battles.

  • Battle of Azule ($Sept.\,1886$): Arsi forces were defeated.

• Harar Campaign: Controlled by Egyptians since $1875$, but following their withdrawal, Menilek moved to prevent European occupation.

  • Battle of Chalanqo ($Jan.\,6,\,1887$): Harar resistance under Emir Abdulahi was broken.

• Walayta Campaign ($1894$): Menilek personally led a large army including Ras Mikael, Fitawurari Gabayyahu, Liqa Makwas Abata Bwayalaw, Dajjach Balcha, Ras Walda Giyorgis, and Abba Jifar II. Kawo Tona of Walayta resisted fiercely until he was wounded and captured.

• Kaffa Campaign ($1897$): Joint operation led by Ras Walda Giyorgis. Tato Gaki Sherocho avoided capture for nine months after his capital, Andaracha, fell, but was eventually brought to Addis Ababa as a prisoner.

• Belashangul (Benishangul): Reunified in $1897$ by Ras Makonnen, Dajjach Jote Tullu, and Dajjach Kumsa Morada.

  • Battle of Fadogno ($1897$): Abd al-Rahman Khojale (Bela Shangul) was defeated.

• Conclusion: By $1900$, the formation of the modern empire state was complete.

Long Distance Trade and Medium of Exchange

Shift in Trade Routes

• Change of Direction: In the late $19^{th}$ and early $20^{th}$ centuries, trade shifted from northern routes toward the south and east.

• Reasons for the Shift:

  • Political centrality shifted to Shawa after the Battle of Embabo.

  • The decline of Gondar and Matamma due to Ethio-Mahdist hostilities.

  • The foundation of Addis Ababa as the political center.

  • The opening of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa railway.

  • Gambella was established as a major inland port outlet.

  • Decline of Massawa and Assab ports due to Italo-Ethiopian conflicts and loss of Marab Melash.

Key Trade Features

• Trade Outlets:

  • South-western to Sudan via Gambella.

  • Southern Ethiopia to British East Africa (Kenya).

  • Harar region to British Somaliland.

• Commodity Changes: Importance of Ivory and Civet Musk declined; Coffee became the principal export. "Abujedie" (cotton sheeting) became a major import for clothing and tents.

• Nationalities of Traders: Controlled largely by immigrants (Indians, Greeks, Armenians, Jewish, Benin, and Syrian). National traders focused on local trade.

• Medium of Exchange:

  • The Bank of Abyssinia opened in $March\,1905$ with a capital of $100,000$.

  • The bank facilitated the minting of coins and issuance of notes.

Ethiopia and the Outside World

Diplomatic Efforts of 19th Century Monarchs

• Emperor Tewodros II:

  • Sought military technical assistance from Britain.

  • Established an arms foundry at Gafat near Dabra Tabor.

  • Produced the mortar/cannon called Sebastopol with the help of missionary craftsmen.

  • Succession of events led to the imprisonment of Europeans and the subsequent Napier Expedition ($1867$-$1868$).

  • Battle of Aroge ($April\,10,\,1868$): Tewodros' army was defeated.

  • Suicide: Tewodros committed suicide on Monday at Maqdalla rather than surrender.

• Emperor Yohannes IV:

  • Used J.C. Kirkham as a special envoy to Europe after the Egyptian invasion of $1875$.

  • Letters were sent to Queen Victoria, and leaders of France, Austria, Germany, and Russia.

  • Mission failed; European powers were largely uninterested or had commercial interests in Egypt.

• Emperor Menilek II and Italy:

  • Treaty of May 1883: Count Pietro Antonelli and Menilek signed an agreement on trade and religious propagation.

  • Treaty of October 1887: Italy promised $5,000$ modern rifles for Menilek’s neutrality against Yohannes.

  • Treaty of Wuchale ($May\,2,\,1889$): Included the controversial Article XVII regarding foreign negotiations.

20th Century International Relations

• Lej Iyyasu: Supported Somali patriot Sayyid Muhammad Abdille Hasan; established links with Germany and Turkey during WWI, which alarmed the Triple Entente.

• Empress Zewditu / Ras Teferi: Ethiopia joined the League of Nations in $1923$. Students were sent abroad (approx. $200$ students to France, Egypt, Britain, USA, and Switzerland).

• Emperor Haile Selassie I and the USA:

  • Began with the Skinner Mission ($1903$).

  • Employed American advisors: E.A. Colson (finance), Ernest Work (education), and John Spencer (legal affairs).

  • $1943$: Vice Minister of Finance Yilma Deresa visited the USA to seek military and financial aid.

• The Derg and the Soviet Union: Following the $1974$ uprising, Ethiopia shifted alliances toward Moscow for military aid against Somalia and internal rebels. Alliance ended in late $1990$ under Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms.

Defense of Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity

Confronting Regional Threats

• The Ottoman Turks: Occupied Massawa in $1557$. In $1579$, Sarsa Dingil defeated Bahr Negash Yeshaq (who allied with Turks) but couldn't dislodge the Turks from the coast.

• Egyptian Expansion: Khedive Ismail sought to control the Nile headwaters.

  • Battle of Gundat ($Nov.\,16,\,1875$): Colonel Arendrup’s army was annihilated by Yohannes IV’s forces in less than an hour.

  • Battle of Gura ($March\,7-9,\,1876$): Led by Muhammad Ratif Pasha and American General Loring. A major victory for Ethiopia.

• Hewett (Adwa) Treaty ($June\,3,\,1884$): British negotiator Rear Admiral William Hewett. Ethiopia agreed to help evacuate Egyptian troops from Sudan in exchange for Bogos and free transit through Massawa.

• Mahdist Sudan:

  • Battle of Kufit ($Sept.\,23,\,1885$): Ras Alula defeated Uthman Diqna.

  • Battle of Gute Dili ($Oct.\,14,\,1888$): Ras Gobena defeated Mahdist forces in Wallaga.

  • Battle of Sar Wuha: Mahdists under Abu Anja defeated King Takla Haymanot and sacked Gondar.

  • Battle of Matamma ($March\,9,\,1889$): Emperor Yohannes IV was killed in battle against the Mahdists.

The Crisis of the 1890s and Battle of Adwa

• Treaty of Wuchale Discrepancy:

  • Italian Version (Article XVII): Ethiopia must use Italy for foreign negotiations (Protectorate).

  • Amharic Version (Article XVII): Ethiopia may use Italy for negotiations (Optional).

• Conflict: Menilek declared the treaty null and void in $Feb.\,1891$.

• The Battle ($March\,1,\,1896$):

  • Ethiopian Commanders: Menilek II, Empress Taytu, Ras Makonnen, Ras Mangasha, Negus Takla Haimanot.

  • Italian Commanders: General Oreste Baratieri, Dabormida, Arimondi, and Alebertone.

  • Result: Decisive Italian defeat. Prime Minister Francisco Crispi resigned.

• Treaty of Addis Ababa ($Oct.\,26,\,1896$): Abrogated Wuchale, recognized absolute Ethiopian independence.

Fascist Italian Aggression ($1935$-$1941$)

• Pretext: The Wal Wal incident ($Dec.\,5,\,1834$) in Ogaden.

• Invasion: Marshal Pietro Badoglio replaced Emilio De Bono.

• Major Battles:

  • Amba Aradom: Ras Mulugeta Yigezu killed.

  • Second Battle of Tembien: Central column under Ras Kassa and Ras Seyum collapsed.

  • Battle of Shire: Ras Imru’s initial victory at Endabaguna ($Dec.\,15,\,1835$) was followed by retreat.

  • Battle of Maichew ($March\,31,\,1836$): Final major confrontation; Italians used mustard gas. Haile Selassie went into exile shortly after.

• Resistance: Patriots like Ras Abebe Aragay, Belay Zeleke, and Shewarged Gedle fought on.

• Graziani Massacre: Following an assassination attempt by Abraha Deboch and Moges Asgdom on $Feb.\,19,\,1837$, Italians killed approx. $30,000$ people, including $499$ monks at Debra Libanos.

• Liberation ($May\,5,\,1941$): Gideon Force (Major Wingate) and regular British forces (Platt and Cunningham) restored the Emperor to his throne.

Somalia Aggression

• Concept: "Greater Somalia" (aiming for Ogaden, Djibouti, and parts of Kenya).

• $1977$ War: Siad Barre invaded the Ogaden. Ethiopia, supported by the Soviet Union, Cuba, and Yemen, defeated Somalia at the Battle of Kara Mara.

Questions & Discussion

• Why did Ethiopia disintegrate during the Era of Princes? It was due to the existence of strong regional vassals who did not recognize a central authority.

• Who was the last king of Walayta? Kawo Tona, who surrendered after being wounded in $1894$.

• What was the immediate cause of the Battle of Adwa? The misinterpretation and subsequent ratification of Article XVII of the Treaty of Wuchale.

• Why did Italy support Ethiopia's entry to the League of Nations? In the early $1920s$, Italy presented itself as a friend to Ethiopia to facilitate future diplomatic and economic influence before the rise of the Fascist regime's aggressive policies.

• Who were the internal patriots during the Italian occupation? Figures like Shewarged Gedle and the monks of Debra Libanos who supported the resistance within the country.

• What was the result of the Battle of Dogali? Ras Alula's forces successfully destroyed the Italian expansionist forces in $1887$.