AP World History Flash Cards
Unit 1: The Global Tapestry (1200 - 1450)
State: A territory that is politically organized under a single government
Development in Song China
Song Dynasty
960 - 1279
Maintained and justified rule using Confucianism
Revival from Tang Dynasty
Neo-Confucianism
Rid Confucian thought of the influence of Buddhism
Confucianism
Hierarchical
There is a prescribed and proper order to everything
Filial Piety
Emphasized the necessity and virtue of children obeying and honoring their parents, grandparents, and deceased ancestors
Everyone has their place and everyone has their role
Women in Song China
Women were relegated to the subordinate position
Stripped of legal rights
Endured social restrictions
Only had access to limited education
Made to endure the practice of foot binding
Maintained and justified rule using Imperial Bureaucracy
Bureaucracy
A government entity arranged in a hierarchical fashion that carries out the will of the emperor
Civil Service Exam
Eligible men had to take and pass exam based on Confucian classes to get a job
Bureaucratic jobs were earned on the basis of merit
Open to men of all socio-economic statuses, but had to be rich enough to not work to devote himself to study
Korea, Japan, and Vietnam were influenced by Chinese traditions
Korea
Used similar civil service examination
Adopted Buddhism
Buddhism
Four Noble Truths
Life is suffering
We suffer because we crave
We cease suffering when we cease craving
The Eightfold Path leads to the cessation of suffering and craving
Similarities with Hinduism
Cycle of birth and death and reincarnation
Ultimate goal: dissolve into the oneness of the universe
Nirvana
New branches
Theravada Buddhism
Sri Lanka
Mahayana Buddhism
East Asian
Arose based on interactions with other Asian cultures
Economy in Song China
Commercialization of Economy
Manufacturers and artisans began to produce more goods than they consumed
Sold excess goods in markets in China and across Eurasia
Porcelain and silk
Agricultural innovation
Champa rice
Matured early, resisted drought, and could be harvested multiple times a year
Population grew because more food = more babies
Transportation Innovations
Expansion of the grand canal
Facilitated trade and communication among china’s various regions
Developments in Dar-al-islam
Dar-al-islam
House of Islam
Places where islamic faith was the organizing principle of civilizations
Monotheistic religions
These religions were also practiced
Judaism
Ethnic religion of the Jews
Christianity
Established by the jewish prophet jesus christ
Islam
Founded by prophet Muhammad
Final prophet in the line of God’s messengers
Wherever those religions were practiced, believers used those religious principles to shape their societies
Abbasid caliphate
Baghdad
Ethnically Arab
Began to break up
Muslim empires were still around, but now the dominant empires were led by ethnic Turks, not Arabs
Seljuk empire, Mamluk sultanate, Delhi sultanate
Seljuk empire
Established during the 11th century in central asia by turkic pastoralists known as seljuks
Abbasids needed military help with territorial expansion and keeping their diverse people groups in line so they brought in the seljuk warriors
Seljuks noticed the weaknesses of the abbasids so they fought and created their own empire
Seljuks had the most amount of power in the abbasid caliphate
Turkic empires: Change
During the period 1200-1450, the dominance of Arab Muslim empires was fading while turkic muslim empires rose up to replace them
Turkic empires: Continuity
Military administered their states
Established sharia law
Legal code based on the quran
Cultural and scientific innovations
Muslim scholar Nasir Al-Din Al-Tusi
Invented trigonometry
Muslim scholars preserved works of greek moral and natural philosophy by translating them into Arabic and making commentaries
Done by arab scholars in the house of wisdom in baghdad
Library with scholarly works established under the abbasid empire during the golden age of Islam
Began after the rediscovery of greek and roman manuscripts
Dar-al-Islam and song china were the center of the world’s scholarship and wealth
Expansion of muslim rule throughout Eurasia
Military expansion
Establishment of the seljuk, mamluk, and delhi sultanates
Muslim merchants
Much of north africa was ruled by muslims which stimulated trade in the movement of merchants throughout africa
Empire of mali in west africa converted to islam because they had more access to trade among dar-al-islam
Muslim missionaries
Sufis
Was able to adapt to local beliefs which is why it spread easily
Lots of conversion in south asia was due to sufi missionaries
South and Southeast Asia
Three belief systems
Hinduism
Buddhism
Islam
South asian belief systems
Buddhism was formed there but was declining
Hinduism was the most widespread religion and islam was second most important and influential with the establishment of the delhi sultanate
Because in large parts of india the muslims were in charge it became the religion of the elite and spread throughout southeast asia
Bhakti movement
Innovation on traditional polytheistic hinduism
Bhakti movement emphasized the devotion to just one of the Hindu gods
Mounted challenges to social and gender hierarchies
Southeast Asian belief systems
Buddhism and Islam were the most important and influential religions
State building
South asia
Muslim delhi sultanate ruled majority of northern india but were having problems maintaining their rule and creating a muslim state
Rajput kingdoms
Hindu kingdoms that fought each other but were able to stop muslim rule from converting them
Vijayanagara empire
Established in 1336
Hindu
Created due to failed attempt of delhi sultanate to extend muslim rule into the south
Emissaries sent by delhi sultanate were former hindus that were forced to become muslim, so once they reached the south they converted back to hinduism and created their own empire
Southeast asia
Sea-based and land-based empires that made names for themselves through interactions with china and india
Majapahit kingdom
Sea-based in Java 1293-1520
Buddhist
One of the most powerful states in southeast asia
Maintained its influence by controlling sea routes for trade
Began to decline when china started supporting the sultanate of malacca, which was its trading rival
Khmer empire
Land-based
Hinduism but converted to buddhism
Angkor wat
Built as a hindu temple but added buddhist elements once converted
Represents the kingdom’s religious continuity and change over time
State building in the americas
Mesoamerica
Aztec empire
Founded in 1345 by the mexica people
Tenochtitlan was a ginormous capitol
Administration
Created an elaborate system of tribute states
The people they conquered were required to provide labor for the aztecs and regular contributions of goods like food, animals, building materials, etc
Enslaved people played a large role in their religion
Many became candidates for human sacrifice
Andean civilizations
Inca empire
Incorporate the land and languages of older indian societies
Administrations
Elaborate bureaucracy
Rigid hierarchy of officials spread throughout empire
Mit’a system
Required all people under their rule to provide labor on state projects like large state farms, mining military service, state construction projects, etc.
The aztecs were mostly decentralized in how they ruled while the inca were highly centralized
Mississippian culture
First large scale civilization in north america
Around mississippi river valley
Focused on agriculture due to fertile soil
Power structure
In terms of state building among the mississippians, large towns dominated smaller, satellite settlements politically
Known for monumental towns
Large towns built by cahokia people
State building in africa
East africa
Swahili civilization
Cities organized around commerce also known as trading along the east african coast
Each city was politically independent with common social hierarchy
Put the merchant elite above commoners
Deeply influenced by muslim traders
New language, swahili, emerged
Descended from indigenous African bantu languages but used arabic alphabet and script
Demonstrates the intermingling and cooperation among various cultures
As a result of muslim influence, the swahili states rapidly became islamic which only increased their integration into the large islamic world of trade
West Africa
Powerful and highly centralized civilizations
Ghana, Mali, Songhay
Growth was driven by trade which gave them reason to become muslim
It was mostly the elite members and government officials in these empires that converted to islam while the majority of the population held on to their indigenous beliefs and traditions
Hausa kingdoms
Not centralized
Series of city-states
Grew due to trade and were brokers of the trans-saharan trade
Great zimbabwe
1250-1450
Very large and grew due to trade
With the increasing african and international trade being processed through the great zimbabwe, it grew exceedingly wealthy and shifted to mainly gold exports
Rulers and people in zimbabwe never converted to islam but rather maintained their indigenous shamanistic religion
Kingdom of ethiopia
Different because main religion was Christianity
Hierarchical power structure was similar to the other african states
Developments in europe
Christianity in europe
Eastern orthodox
Byzantine empire
Eastern half of what was left of the roman empire
Declining by 1200
Kievan Rus adopted eastern orthodox christianity
Roman catholicism
Western europe
Made of tiny decentralized states after the fall of the roman empire
Largely isolated from trade
Roman catholicism connected every region
Church had significant influence and power
Muslims and jews also exerted influence in europe
Al-andalus
Muslims conquered most of the iberian peninsula
Anti-semitism
Jewish persecution
Kept jews on the outskirts of european life
How european states were organized and how they maintained power
No large empires in europe
During this period, decentralization and political fragmentation was the political flavor in europe
Feudalism
A system of allegiances between powerful lords, monarchs, and knights
Vassals received land from their lords in exchange for military service
Manorialism
Manor: A piece of land owned by a lord which was then rented out to peasants who worked the land
Peasants were bound to land and worked it in exchange for protection from the lord and his military forces
Serfs were peasants who were bound to land but not to the land owner
Center of political and economic power was in the hands of landowning lords (nobility)
Unit 2: Networks of Exchange (1200 - 1450):
Networks of exchange:
Trading routes
Merchants were carrying goods for sale, but also brought religion, languages, and technologies
Economic interaction and cultural diffusion and transfers
How states were connected to one another through networks of exchange
All networks were established before 1200 but expanded during the time period 1200-1450
Silk Roads, Indian Ocean Network, and Trans-Saharan Trade
Geographical range expanded which led to further connections among states
Geographical range expanded due to innovations in commercial practices and technological innovations
Increased connectivity caused multiple states to grow in wealth and power due to their participation in these networks
Increased interconnectivity caused the rise of powerful trading cities, but also caused other cities to collapse
Silk Roads
Luxury goods trading network that stretched across Eurasia
Chinese silk and porcelain
Expensive to travel from one side of the world to the other, so they only carried luxury goods
Expansion reflected the growing demand for luxury items which caused an increase in production of these goods by Chinese, Indian, and Persian artisans
Example: Focus on production of luxury goods for distant markets led peasants in the Yangtze river delta to scale back on food production in order to produce more luxury goods to trade across the silk roads
Innovations facilitated the expansion of these networks
Transportation technologies
Caravanserai
Inns and guest houses along the silk roads
Provided safety along the routes
Brought merchants from all different cultures and backgrounds together and created the occasion for significant transfers whether it was cultural or technological
Commercial practices
Buying and selling things became way easier
Made getting paid easier which caused an increase in trade along the silk roads
Money economies
Uses paper money to facilitate exchange, unlike a barter economy which uses goods as currency (developed in China)
Flying money: Paper money was light and merchants were able to deposit it in one location and deposit it in another location making travel easier and transactions safer (developed in China)
Credit
Developed in China but spread to Europe
Banking houses that handled money exchanges
Merchants present a bill of exchange with name of merchant and amount of money owed and the banking house would give them that money
Increase in trade led to the rise of powerful trading cities that grew and flourished precisely because they were located along these routes
Kashgar
Located at the convergence of two major routes of the silk roads
Built around a river and lush valley led to it being a popular stop for traveling merchants
Increase of trade along the silk road led to an increase in wealth for Kashgar
Indian Ocean Network
Maritime
A thorough understanding of monsoon winds made trade along this network possible
Merchants learned the ways of the winds over time
A large bulk o what was traded along these routes included more common goods like textiles and spices
Ships had more cargo and could hold more goods
Also traded luxury goods, but not as much as the silk roads
Technological innovations and innovations in commercial practices caused the expansion of this network
Technological innovations that caused expansion
Magnetic compass
Helped merchants know which direction to sail in
Astrolabe
Tool for measuring the stars and then comparing them to star charts which helped reckon latitude and longitude
New ship designs
Chinese “Junk”
Massive ships with large cargo holds that could carry lots of goods
Innovations in commercial practices that facilitated trade
Various forms of credit
Effects of expansion
Growth of states
Swahili city-states
A collection of independent city-states along Africa’s east coast
Acted as brokers for goods originating from the African interior
Gold, ivory, enslaved people
Grew significantly in power and wealth
Became Islamic and got connected into the larger trading world of Dar-al-Islam
Increased their power and economic prosperity
Diasporic communities
A settlement of ethnic people in a location other than their homeland
Arab and Persian communities established in East Africa
Led to intermarriage with the women there
Ensured that trading partners from different states were trustworthy
Cultural intermingling led to a further spread of Islam which led to the growth of the Swahili city-states in East Africa
New languages emerge
Swahili language
Mixture of native Bantu languages and Arabic words
Cultural diffusion
Zheng He
Ginormous fleet
Sent by China’s ming dynasty to go throughout the Indian ocean enrolling states in China’s tributary system
China’s advance maritime technology especially navigation tools and ship building methods spread throughout places that he visited
Trans-Saharan Trade
Located in Africa
Innovations in transportation technologies
Camel saddle
Developed for transporting bigger loads of cargo across the desert
Participation in this network led to the increasing wealth and power of various states
Empire of Mali
Conversion of leadership to Islam in the 9th century which led to prosperous merchant network throughout Dar-al-Islam
Grew rich through the trade of gold and taxation of merchants traveling through West Africa
Wealth and influence was at its highest point in the 14th century under Mansa Musa’s rule
Further monopolized trade between the north and the interior of the continent increasing the wealth of Mali and facilitating the growth of existing trade routes
Consequences of connectivity
Cultural effects
Transfer of religion or belief systems
Buddhism
Originated in south asia
Entered china via the silk roads carried by merchants and missionaries
Literary and artistic transfers
House of wisdom
Translated greek and roman classics into arabic
Made extensive commentaries on works
Including their own developments in philosophy and medical practices
Works were later transferred to Europe which eventually led to the Renaissance
Scientific and technological innovations
Gunpowder
Invented in China and spread to Muslim empires and then easter europe through networks of exchange
Once they figured out how to use it the harnessing of gunpowder fundamentally altered the balance of power across the world
Rise and fall of cities
Hangzhou
At the end of China’s grand canal which facilitated trade and caused it to increase in wealth and urbanization
More people organized their lives around it
Other cities fell because military traveled through trade routes as well
Baghdad
Got destroyed by the mongols in 1258
Travelers wrote about their experiences
Ibn Battuta
Young muslim scholar from morocco
Traveled all over Dar-al-Islam over the course of 30 years
Took detailed notes about places, people, rulers, and cultures
Travels made possible because of trade routes
He was important because he wrote about his travels which gave later scholars a first-hand account of life all over dar-al-islam
Environmental effects
Transfer of crops
Champa rice
Introduced to china through the champa kingdom who offered it to china as a part of the tribute system
Produced more food for their population which allowed it to grow
More food = more babies
Transfer of disease
Bubonic plague
Erupted in china in 1331 carried by rats and fleas
Fleas attached themselves onto camels and merchants that traveled through the silk roads
Rats found hidden corners in ships traveling through the Indian ocean trade
Entirely aligned with trading routes
Very deadly and killed lots of people in the middle east and europe
Due to connectivity
The Mongol Empire
Facilitated networks of exchange
Established largest land-based empire of all time and replaced powerful empires across eurasia
Song dynasty and Abbasid empire fell to the mongols
Controlled eurasia through 4 khanates
States ruled by the khan
Under mongol rule networks of exchange increased significantly
The silk roads flourished the most when large empires controlled the routes because they could provide safety and continuity along them
Entire eurasian world came under their domination
Encouraged international trade and extracted great wealth as the facilitators of commerce on the silk roads
Paid high prices for goods from other countries which encouraged trade
Ensured the safety of merchants making long treks across trade routes
Facilitated an unprecedented increase in communication and cooperation across their empire
Persian and chinese courts worked together and sent emissaries and artisans to each other
Trade increased between both sides of the mongol empire
Pax mongolica, peace of the mongols
Facilitated technological and cultural transfers
Technological
Created conditions for transfer of greek and islamic medical knowledge to western europe
Cultural
Adopted the Uyghur script from one of the turkic muslim groups that they conquered in central asia
Became very common around their empire
Unit 3: Land-Based Empires (1450 - 1750)
Land-based empires expand
Land-based empire: an empire whose power comes from the extent of its territorial holdings
Ottoman empire
Founded in the 14th century
Gunpowder weapons allowed them to expand
China made gunpowder and it spread to afro-eurasia through trade
Controlled most of southwestern europe and anatolia by the beginning of the 15th century
Islamic ottomans conquered constantinople in 1453 and renamed it to istanbul using gunpowder weapons
Used to be the heart to the roman empire
By conquering it, the ottomans were able to expand into eastern europe
Ottomans conquered states in the balkans and enslaved christians
Converted enslaved christians to muslims
Took the best ones and turned them into an elite fighting force called the janissaries to expand their empire
Safavid empire
Conquered neighboring territories under the leadership of shah ismail
Gunpowder weapons allowed them to expand
Shah abbas worked up military due to no natural defensive barriers with the adoption of gunpowder weapons
Cavalry was not interested in shooting guns on horses so they established an enslaved army that included captured christians from the caucasus region
They were well trained and became a big part of the safavid empire and their ability to expand
Ottoman empire and the safavid empire similarities
Humble beginnings
Rapid expansion with gunpowder
Elite enslaved military forces
Muslim
Ottoman empire and safavid empire differences
Ottomans: Sunni muslim
Safavids: Shi’a muslim
Sunnis believed that the rightful successor of Muhammad could be anyone spiritually fit for the office while the Shi’a believed that only blood relatives of Muhammad were his legitimate successors
Each branch believed they were the true representations of islam while the other was not
Causes many problems
Mughal Empire
Established in south and central asia in the first half of the 16th century
Where the delhi sultanate used to be until in 1526 a man named babur rose to power in central asia and began campaigns against the delhi sultanate until it no longer existed
Expanded rapidly with a growing military that used gunpowder weapons
Babur’s grandson named akbar expanded the empire years later
Muslim but akbar was religiously tolerant and accepted many belief systems which settled tensions between muslims and hindus
Became the most prosperous empire of the 16th century because of this and akbar’s leadership
Qing dynasty
Also known as the manchu empire
Mongols created the yuan dynasty but once that fell the ming dynasty rose
The people of the ming dynasty were ethnically han which means they were chinese and not foreign like the mongols
The manchus took over china as the ming dynasty was weakening and established the qing dynasty
Expanded and military grew using gunpowder weapons
Empires compared
Land-based empires
Expanded rapidly
Used gunpowder to expand
Ethnically different from subjects
Qing/mughal
Safavids/ottomans
Rivalries between empires
Safavid-mughal conflict
Fought over territory in what is today Afghanistan
Mughals controlled the territory but as they were occupied the safavid took over
Mughals tried to take their territory back but failed
Safavids were shi’a muslim and mughals were sunni muslim which increased tensions between them
Caused them to try to establish full dominance over the region
No clear victor
The administration of empires
How rulers legitimized and consolidated their power
Legitimized: The methods a ruler uses to establish their authority
Consolidated: The methods a ruler uses to transfer power from other groups to themselves
Administrative methods
Formation of large bureaucracies
Bureaucracy: The thousands of government officials that ensure laws are kept throughout the empire
Devshirme system
Ottomans used this system to staff their bureaucracy with highly trained individuals
Top performers were appointed to elite positions in the ottoman bureaucracy
Development of military professionals
Janissaries
Religious ideas, art, and monumental architecture
European ideas
Divine right of kings
The idea that monarchs were God’s representative on earth
Chinese art
Emperor kangxi
Hung imperial portraits of himself around the city and portrayed how he is confucian
A way to show the han how he was a legitimate chinese ruler although he was manchu
Incan monumental architecture
Sun temple of cusco
Covered with gold sheets
Courtyards filled with golden statues
Religious ceremonies held there
Magnificent buildings infatuated with the gods legitimized power
Architecture in france
Palace of versailles
Built by louis the 14th
Large structure showed he was in charge and transferred power to himself
Made the french nobility live there with him and fight for his attention and because they had power it transferred power to him
Innovations and tax collection systems
Zamindar system
Employed by the mughal empire
Zamindars: Elite landowners who were granted authority to tax peasants living on their land on behalf of their imperial government
Tax farming
Used by ottomans
The right to tax subjects of the empire was awarded to the highest bidder
Enriched certain people
Tribute lists
Utilized by aztec rulers
Ensured a steady flow of a wide variety of goods to the empire and increased communication between leaders
Belief systems in empires
Continuity and changes of belief systems of empires
Christianity in europe
Roman catholic church that had a lot of power
Church corruption
Simony
People buying their way into positions of power in the church
Sale of indulgences
Used to begin financing its massive building project
People were told that they could pay money to get their sins forgiven
Martin luther
Catholic monk
Troubled by corrupt practices
In 1517 he made a list of complaints known as the 95 thesis and put it in front of a church
He was denounced as a heretic and excommunicated from the church
He kept writing and spreading his ideas throughout europe using the invention of the printing press
Massive split in the church occured
Change —> Protestant reformation
Catholics cleaned up a lot of the corruption protestants were complaining about at the council of trent
Continuity —> Dominance of catholicism
Reaffirmed that their doctrine of salvation was just fine
Both reformations led to significant growth of christianity in europe
Islam
How political rivalries intensified the sunni/shi’a split
Shah ismail declared that the safavid empire would adhere to shi’a islam
Put them at odds with the other sunni muslim empires in the area
Aggravated and intensified the split between these two branches
Took to extreme measures
A division of the safavid military was developed whose sole responsibility was to ensure that everyone in the safavid dynasty ritually and regularly cursed the first three caliphs who succeeded muhammad
The first three successors were not blood relatives of muhammad
Disrespected sunni muslims
Dispute between sunni and shi’a muslims intensified because of political rivalries among islamic empires
Sikhism
A syncretic blend of both hindu and islamic doctrines
Continuity
Retained several important doctrines
Belief in one God
Cycle of reincarnation and death
Change
Discarded he gender hierarchies of islam
Discarded the caste system of hinduism
Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections (1450 - 1750)
Causes of european exploration, sea-based empires
Adoption and innovation of maritime technologies
Technologies came from the classical greek, islamic, and asian worlds
Magnetic compass: china
Astrolabe: ancient greece and arab world
Helped sailors know their latitude
Lateen sail: arab world
Enabled them to take wind on both sides
Adopted tools made it possible for europeans to navigate on the seas
Europeans made their own innovations in shipbuilding
Caravel
Portuguese
Smaller better to navigate
Fast
Carrack
Portuguese
Were the first movers in the maritime empire project
Fluyt
Dutch
Improved understanding of regional wind patterns in Atlantic and indian oceans
Growth of state power
European monarchs were increasing in power
Nobility was losing power
Centralization of power
Monarchs had a bigger role in economic decisions
Interregional trade
Many europeans wanted spices from asia
Land-based empires controlled trade routes within eurasia which caused the prices of spices to increase
European states had a big incentive to find other routes, namely sea-based routes, to asia which would allow them to trade on their own terms
Economic
Mercantilism
A state-driven economic system that characterized imperial european states during this period
Measured wealth in gold and silver
Mercantilist states goal: Favorable balance of trade
When states organize their economies around exports and avoid imports as much as possible
Exporting goods = more gold and silver
Importing goods = less gold and silver
Created a strong motivation for expanding empires through overseas colonization
Colonies existed only to enrich their imperial parents
Joint-stock company
A limited liability business, often chartered by the state, that was funded by a group of private investors
Limited liability business: Investors who pooled their money to finance the exploration could only lose what they invested
States relied on merchants to expand their influence in far-off lands while merchants relied on states to grant them monopolies on various regions of trade
Joint-stock companies were able to make this work
States that used joint-stock companies were increasing in power and wealth while states that used state-sponsored exploration were decreasing in power and wealth
Dutch east india company
Charted by the dutch state in 1602 and included a monopoly on the indian ocean trade
Dutch positively dominated the indian ocean which expanded Dutch’s influence there and made the company’s investors richer
Britain and France developed their own joint-stock companies that expanded their influence
Powerful rivalries among european states were created to insert themselves within the indian ocean
Establishing maritime empires
Portugal started it off
Prince henry the navigator was their leader
Brought together sailors, map makers, and shipbuilders to figure out how to sail down the atlantic coast of africa
Originally wanted to take part in the gold trade in west africa
Eventually took interest in the indian ocean in the 1440s
Established a trading post empire around the coast of africa and throughout the indian ocean
Set up trading posts/factories to control trade throughout the region
Portugal, spain, france, england, and dutch started establishing maritime empires
The columbian exchange
The columbian exchange: the transfer of new diseases, food, plants, and animals between the eastern and western hemispheres
Disease
Europeans introduced smallpox and measles to the americas
Malaria: carried by disease vectors like mosquitoes
Food and plants
Greatly affected populations both in the new world and the old world
Europeans introduced olives, wheat, and grapes to the americas
African and asian foods like rice, sugar, and bananas were also introduced to the americas
The americas introduced potatoes and maize to europe, africa and asia
Contributed to healthier populations
Longer life spans
Resulted in population explosion
Cash cropping: a method of agriculture that focuses on growing crops, usually a single crop, primarily for export
Animals
Europeans introduced pigs, sheep, and cattle to the americas
By far the most consequential animal was the horse
Resistance to imperial expansion
Resistance from some asian states against the intrusion of western powers in the indian ocean
Tokugawa japan isolated itself and only traded with dutch
Resistance on the local level in european states themselves
The fronde was against absolutism in france
Resistance from the enslaved
Maroon societies revolted against imperial militia
Effect: expansion of african states
The expansion of maritime trading networks also fostered the growth of some african states who participated in them, thus connecting these states to global economic linkages these networks represented, even if the networks were becoming increasingly european-centered
Change and continuity in networks of exchange
Indian ocean network
Change
Entrance and massive power grabs of european states into this network
European entrance into the trade network increased profits not only for europeans but also for many of these merchants who had always used the network for trade
Continuity
Middle eastern, south asian, east asian, and southeast asian merchants continued to use indian ocean network
Long established merchants like the gujaratis continued to make use of indian ocean network
Despite growing european dominance on the sea, overland routes like the silk roads were still almost entirely controlled by various asian land-based powers
Most notably ming china, qing, and ottoman empire
Peasant and artisan labor continue in many regions as demand for food and consumer goods increased as a result of multiplying trade connections
Change: atlantic system
Opening of the atlantic system
The movement of goods, wealth, and laborers between the eastern and western hemispheres made europeans rich and powerful
Sugar
Silver
Effects of silver
Silver was used to purchase luxury goods from china
Satisfied the chinese demand for silver
Further developed the commercialization of china’s economy
Goods that silver purchased were traded on the atlantic system
Further enriched all who participated
Coerced labor
Forced indigenous labor
Indentured servitude
African slavery
The massive changes that occurred in the opening of the atlantic system was maintained by the global flow of silver and trade monopolies granted by states to joint-stock companies
Changes in labor systems
Mit’a system: developed and deployed by the inca empire - required their subjects to provide labor on state projects for a certain number of days per year
The mit’a system of the spanish was not an exact copy of the inca version
New labor systems
Chattel slavery
Slavery in which purchaser has total ownership over enslaved person
Race-based and hereditary
Before, in mediterranean and indian ocean networks and trans-saharan networks, enslavement was not race based and enslave people often assimilated into the cultures where they worked
Effects of chattel slavery
Europeans purchased male slaves 2:1
Main economic engine of imperial empires in the americas was difficult agricultural work and mining
Significantly impacted the demographics of various african states
Size of trans-atlantic slave trade > indian ocean and mediterranean counterparts
Racial component of atlantic slave system
In the americas, slavery became identified with blackness
Provided the justification for the brutality of slavery
Social effects of atlantic slave trade
Significant gender imbalance
Especially in west african states
Changing family structures
Rise of polygyny
The phenomenon of men marrying more than one woman
Cultural synthesis
Growing emergence of creole languages in the caribbean and brazil
Indentured servitude
Laborer would sign contract that bound them to a particular work for a period of time
Usually seven years
At the end of the contract, the laborer could go free
Encomienda system
Used by spanish to divide indigenous americans among spanish settlers
Americans forced to provide labor for spanish in exchange for food and protection
Encomienda had nothing to do with land ownership and everything to do with controlling the indigenous population
Hacienda
Indigenous laborers forced to work fields of large plantations known as “haciendas”
Amounted to situation not much different than slavery
Hacienda centered on land ownership as the main vehicle for controlling the indigenous population
Effects: changing belief systems
In some cases, indigenous groups outwardly adopted christianity, but privately continued to practice their own religious beliefs
The effect of all this was a religious syncretism that resulted in a blending of some christian beliefs and practices with indigenous beliefs and practices
Effects: changing social hierarchies
Social hierarchies
Ethnic and religious diversity
Rise of new political elites
Spanish imposed a new social hierarchy known as the casta system on their colonial holdings in the americas
Organized colonial society in a series of ranks based on race and ancestry
Prior to the imposing of the casta system, native peoples were part of a wide variety of linguistic and cultural groups
The casta system erased much of that cultural complexity and ordered their society by the standards of a small minority of spanish elite
Transition from the ming to the qing dynasty in china
The struggles of existing elites
Russian boyars made up the aristocratic land-owning class in russia
Unit 5: Revolutions (1750 - 1900)
The enlightenment
Enlightenment: an intellectual movement that applied new ways of understanding, such as rationalism, and empiricist approaches to both the natural world and human relationships
Rationalism
Reason, rather than emotion or any external authority is the most reliable source of true knowledge
Empiricism
The idea that true knowledge is gained through the senses, mainly through rigorous experimentation
During the scientific revolution, scientists tossed biblical and religious authority out the window and used the rigorous process of reason to discover how the world really worked
The enlightenment is an extension of the scientific revolution, but instead it applies scientific and rationalistic thinking to the study of human society
The questioning and re-examination of the role of religion
Christianity is a revealed religion which means commands cannot be questioned because of the teachings of God in the bible
Authority shifted from outside a person to inside a person
New belief systems
Deism
Exceedingly popular among enlightenment thinkers
Believed that there was a god that created all things, but no longer intervened in the created order
Atheism
Complete rejection of religious belief and any notion of divine beings
New enlightenment ideas
Political ideas
Individualism
The most basic element of society was the individual human and not collective groups
Natural rights
Individual humans are born with certain rights that cannot be infringed upon by governments or any other entity
John locke argued that every human being was born with the natural rights of life, liberty, and property
Endowed by God and could not be taken away by a monarch
Social contract
Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct governments of their own will to protect their natural rights
Effects of enlightenment ideas
Enlightenment effects
Major revolutions
Including the american, french, haitian, and latin american revolutions
The enlightenment’s emphasis on the rejection of established traditions and new ideas about how political power ought to work played a significant role in each of these great upheavals
Nationalism: a sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often linked with a desire for territory
Expansion of suffrage
Suffrage means the right to vote
Abolition of slavery
Britain abolished slavery in 1807, but were also very wealthy
In 1831 a massive slave rebellion called the great jamaica revolt occurred in british jamaica and had lots of casualties
End of serfdom
The change from agricultural economy to industrial economy caused serfs (peasants) to not be necessary
Peasant revolts also caused the end of serfdom
Calls for women’s suffrage
Feminist movement arose where women were demanding equality in all areas of life, especially voting
Olympe de gouges
Wrote the declaration of the rights of women and the female citizen that criticized the french constitution for sidelining women in the birth of post-revolutionary france
Causes of revolution
Nationalism
A sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and often a desire for territory
Some states attempted to use this growing nationalistic fervor to their advantage in order to foster a sense of unity among their people
Nationalistic themes
Public rituals
Military service
Russia made everyone in their territory speak russian, but it backfired in finland, poland, and ukraine because they spoke their own languages
Political dissent
Widespread discontent with monarchist and imperial rule
These revolutions took place in the context of a much more generalized rejection of authority across the world
Safavid empire tried to impose taxes, but were met with rebellion from various militaristic nomadic groups on the edges of the empire which caused the weakening of the safavid empire and eventually the end of it in the early 18th century
New ways of thinking
The development of new ideologies and systems of government
New ideologies
Popular sovereignty
The power to govern was in the hands of the people
Democracy
People have the right to vote and influence the policies of the government
Liberalism
An economic and political ideology that emphasized the protection of civil rights, representative government, the protection of private property, and economic freedom
The atlantic revolutions
New ideologies
American revolution
Began in 1776
Britain established 13 colonies in america in which they independently developed a culture, system of government, and economic framework without interference from britain
After seven years’ war, britain was in debt so they imposed new taxes on their colonies
Revolution began because of new taxes, curtailment of freedoms, and adoption of enlightenment principles
Enlightenment ideas are implemented in the declaration of independence
France helped america win the war and become the united states in 1783
This victory was a real big deal because it provided the template for other nations throughout the world for a successful overthrow of oppressive power and the establishment of a republican style government
French revolution
Began in 1789
Louis the 16th attempted to tighten his control over france due to his enormous war debts and the people revolted, overthrew the government, and established a republic
Enlightenment ideas influenced the declaration of the rights of man and citizen
Natural rights and popular sovereignty
Haitian revolution
Began in 1791
Haiti was the colonial property of france and was the most prosperous colony in the whole world
Enslaved black population was inspired by the calling for equality and liberty
Toussaint louverture led the enslaved haitians and revolted against the french, establishing the second republic in the western hemisphere and the first black government in the region
Latin american revolutions
Spanish and portuguese colonies were inspired by enlightenment ideas and disliked the increasing control their imperial parents were exerting upon them
Creoles: europeans who were born in the americas
Second in the list of racial hierarchy under peninsulares
Peninsulares: europeans who were born in europe
Creoles revolted under leadership of simon bolivar who wrote a letter from jamaica that included enlightenment ideas like popular sovereignty and right to self rule
After a long series of wars, latin american colonies were gaining independence one by one and formed republican governments
Other nationalist movements
While nationalism was a prime factor in the full-blown revolutions we just talked about, there were also many other nationalist movements that resulted not in revolution bu calls for a higher degree of self-rule in some cases and national unification in other cases
Propaganda movement in the philippines
Spanish colony with similar racial hierarchy as the americas
Spanish controlled education
Only the wealthy creoles and mestizos go university education
Filipinos learned about enlightenment ideas, so the spanish tried to suppress them which led to the philippine revolution
Unification of italy and germany
Made up of fragmented states but nationalistic ideas caused these states to unify under a single government
Industrial revolution defined
Industrial revolution: the process by which states transitioned from primarily agrarian economies to industrial economies
Goods went from being made by hand to made by machines
The industrial revolution fundamentally changed the world’s balance of political power, reordered societies, and made industrial nations rich
Why great britain came first in the industrial revolution
Proximity to waterways
Geographical distribution of coal and iron
Abundant access to foreign resources
Improved agricultural productivity
Prior to the industrial revolution, many places in europe, especially britain, experienced an agricultural revolution in which the amount of food grown on farms increased significantly
Agricultural revolution
Crop rotation
Kept part of the land unplanted, so the fertility of the soil would be maintained
Seed drill
Ensured seeds could be planted more efficiently and accurately which led to less waste and greater harvests
New foods were introduced through the columbian exchange
The potato was introduced to europe from the americas and this highly caloric food diversified their diets, especially among impoverished folks in rural areas, and that in turn made them healthier and increased their life expectancy
37 years old to 41 years old
Rapid urbanization
Rural to urban migration
Legal protection of private property
Entrepreneurs felt safe to risk investment
Accumulation of capital
The factory system
Factory: a place where goods for sale were mass-produced by machines
Concentrated production in a single location
The effect of steam power
Steam engine: a machine that converted fossil fuel into mechanical energy
The pace of the industrial revolution increased rapidly as machines could be powered anywhere
Steamship
Mass-produced goods could be transported further and faster
Shifting world economies
Industrial factors
Proximity to waterways
Coal and iron
Access to foreign resources
Improved agricultural productivity
Urbanization
Protection of private property
Accumulation of capital
Quick adopters had more industrial factors while slow adopters had less industrial factors
Eastern and southern europe were slow adopters
Lacked abundant coal deposits
Land locked
Hindered by historically powerful groups
The world split in half with industrialized countries and non-industrialized countries
Industrialized countries like britain, france, and america stated claiming portions of the world’s global manufacturing output
Countries in the middle east and asia who had previously been manufacturing powerhouses of the world stated to see their share of production of the world decline
Textile industries in egypt and india were declining due to britain’s textile industry
Ship building industries in india and southeast asia were controlled by britain
Industrialized nations compared
France
Adopted industrial technologies, but it was at a slower pace than britain’s
Lacked coal and iron
Compared to britain, france industrialized much slower, but that slower adoption meant that france was spared some of the intense social upheavals britain experienced because of its rapid transition
America
Industrialized quickly because it had many of the same factors as britain
Massive territory
Political stability
Rapid population growth
Russia
Adopted industrial technologies
Railroad
Steam engine
Trans-siberian railroad
Although russia’s industrialization project brought them somewhat on par with other industrial powers, the top-down approach yielded brutal conditions for workers
Led to the russian revolution of 1905
Therefore, unlike the united states in which industrialization was largely driven from below by workers seeking new opportunities, russia’s industrialization was a state-driven affair in response to russia’s lagging development compared to western europe
Japan
Meiji restoration
Borrowed from western technology and education
Fuels and engines of industrial revolution
First industrial revolution from 1750-1830 confined to great britain
Second industrial revolution 19th century to the early 20th century and spread to europe, us, russia, and japan
Industrial power: first revolution
Coal
The main engine of the first industrial revolution was the steam engine
The steam engine was developed by british scientist james watt
The chief effect of the adoption of the steam engine is that factory machines no longer had to be powered by rapidly moving water in streams, which meant factories could be built anywhere, which became a chief reason for the rapid spread of the factory system
Industrial power: second revolution
Oil
The internal combustion engine was developed to harness the energy of gasoline
Both of these sources of fuel dramatically increased the amount of energy available to humans during this period even if it came with significant environmental costs like air pollution
Second industrial revolution technology
Effects of new technology
Steel
The bessemer process combined iron with carbon and blasted hot air into it
The steel that emerged from the bessemer process was far stronger and versatile than iron alone
Chemical engineering
Synthetic dyes were developed for textiles
Vulcanization was a process developed to make rubber harder and more durable
Electricity
Electric streetcars and subways were developed to provide mass transit in major cities that were becoming large and complex
Effects of new technology
Development of interior regions
Increase in trade and migration
Global trade multiplied by a factor of ten between 1850 and 1913
As a result states across the world were becoming more closely interlinked int a global economy
Egyptian (ottoman) industrialization
For the states that adopted industrialization, mainly in western europe and the united states, the transformation of their economies and their share of the global balance of power was fundamentally shifted in their favor
The ottoman empire was struggling and declining due to internal corruption and conflicts and therefore had little energy or wealth to invest in industrialization
Tanzimat reforms
Industrial projects
Textile and weapons factories built
Agriculture
Government purchased crops to be sold on world market
Tariffs
Taxes on imported goods
Protected development of egyptian economy
Britain put an end to it because they didn’t like how egypt was industrializing
Japan industrializes
Factors in japan
Western powers
Western powers dominated other asian states like china
Matthew perry
U.S. commodore matthew perry came to japan with a fleet of steam powered ships stacked with guns
Ultimately, japan decided to initiate an aggressive state sponsored program of industrialization as a defensive measure against western domination
Meiji restoration
Japan sought to escape foreign domination by adopting much of the industrial practices that had made the west powerful
Culture
Japan sent emissaries to major industrial powers o learn about their technology, culture, education systems, and political arrangements and implemented it in their own state
Government
Japan established a constitution that provided for an elected parliament, which they borrowed from germany
Infrastructure
The state funded building of railroads, the establishment of a national banking system, and development of industrial factories for textiles and munitions
The slow death of mercantilism
Mercantilism: state-driven system
Played a massive role in european exploration and imperialism
Replaced by free market economics because it was better fit for industrialization and market-driven
After 1815, several western governments abandoned some of their state regulations on trade which resulted in increased trade and greater wealth
Free market critics
Jeremy bentham
Argued the cure for the suffering of the working class and society was not free market economics but government legislation
Friedrich list
Rejected global free market principles as a trick
His work led to the development of the zollverein, a customs union that reduced trade barriers between german states but put tariffs on imported goods
Trans-national corporations
Trans-national corporations: a company that is established and controlled in one country but also establishes large operations in many other countries
Hong kong and shanghai banking corporation
Opened in 1865 in british controlled hong kong to organize and control british imperial ventures
Unilever corporation
A joint company established by the british and the dutch that manufactured household goods, most known for soap
New financial practices
Stock markets
Limited liability
Effects of industrial capitalism
On the whole, all western industrialized nations were far richer in 1900 than they were in 1800
Calls for reform
Political reform
Conservatives and liberals in britain and france incorporated social reforms into their platforms because people who wanted reforms were voting
Social reform
Working class people organized themselves into social societies providing insurance for sickness and social events
Educational reform
High paying jobs became more technical and specialized, and compulsory education prepared children for these kinds of jobs
Urban reforms
Governments passed laws and invested in sanitation infrastructure like sewers
Rise of labor unions
Labor union: a collective of workers who join together in order to protect their own interests
Higher wages
Limited working hours
Improved working conditions
Ideological reactions: marxism
Karl marx believed capitalism was unstable by nature because it created a sharp class division in industrial societies
Karl marx and friedrich engles: Communist manifesto
Scientific socialism
History obeys laws just as the physical world obeys the laws of physics
History moves through patterns and stages
History’s major energy arises out of class struggle
Bourgeoisie: owned means of production
Proletariat: exploited by the bourgeoisie
China attempts industrialization
Self-strengthening movement: series of reforms that sought to take some steps toward industrialization while also revitalizing traditional chinese culture
Failed
Ottoman modernization
Therefore, like china, ottoman authorities decided that a kind of defensive industrialization was necessary
Tanzimat reforms
Built textile factories
Implemented western-style law codes and courts
Expansive education systems
All of these were more secular in nature and divorced from the historic islamic character of the empire
Young ottomans
Desired a european style parliament and a constitutional government that would limit the power of absolutist sultans
New social classes
Industrial working class
Made up of factory workers and miners
Benefits
Their wages were higher than in many of the rural places they came from
Costs
Danger of factory work and mining
Crowded living conditions in shoddy tenements
Spread of disease
Mind-numbing repetitive work fell on them
Middle class
Benefitted the most from industrialization, includes white collar workers such as wealthy factory owners and managers, lawyers, doctors, and teachers
Could afford manufactured products that improved their quality of life and some in the paper middle class could buy their way into aristocracy
Industrialists
At the stop of the social hierarchy, the wealth they gained by owning industrial corporations allowed them to become more powerful than the traditional landed aristocracy
Women and industrialization
Working class women
Worked wage-earning jobs in factories since their husbands’ wages were not sufficient to sustain a family (if they were married)
While children were still working, they were doing so apart from the traditional context of the family
Middle class women
Husbands earned enough money to support the family
In general, they did not work
Remained in their “separate sphere”
Middle-class women were increasingly defined by their domestic roles as homemakers whose main task was to create a safe haven for their working men and a nurturing environment in which to raise children
Challenges of industrialization
The rapid pace of industrialization meant that industrial cities grew far too quickly for their infrastructure to keep up
Industrial problems
Pollution
Housing shortages
Increased crime
Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization (1750 - 1900)
Ideologies that led to a second wave of imperialism
New imperialism: context
Western european states established maritime empires, dominated the indian ocean trade, and colonized the americas
New imperialism motivations
Ideology #1: Nationalism
Nationalism: Describes a sense of commonality among a people based on shared language, religion, social customs, and that is often linked with a desire for self-rule within a territory
People used to be subjects of a sovereign, but due to enlightenment ideas and industrialization people were focusing their loyalty to their nation
Nationalism effects
Italian unification
German unification
Nationalism encourages a love for one’s history and culture which leads to the desire for unification
Nationalistic impulses led imperial states into a bitter rivalry to claim larger empires across the world to achieve greater power status
Ideology #2: Scientific racism
Scientific racism: The idea that humans can be hierarchically ranked in distinct biological classes based on race
Europeans used to view the world as christians vs. non-christians, but due to scientific racism they saw it as white vs. non-white
Phrenology studied the shape and size of human skulls
White people had bigger heads than other races which meant that they were superior
Imperial projects of white europeans in lands of child races was justified
Ideology #3: Social darwinism
Charles darwin
Argued that species evolved from lower life forms through natural selection
Species survive because they are better adapted
Only the fittest survive
If only the fittest survive and thrive in nature, then, applied to human society, that must mean that western industrial societies have proven that their ways are the best suited for the current global environment
Ideology #4: Civilizing mission
Civilizing mission: A sense of duty western (industrial) societies possessed to bring the glories of their civilization to “lower” societies
Sending christian missionaries
Sent to colonized lands to convert them to christianity
Reorganization of colonial governments into western models
Imposition of western-style education
Goal: suppress indigenous language and culture
Methods of imperial expansion
Setting the stage
Historical developments
Shifting geographical focus
1450-1750
Americas
Asia
Southeast asia
1750-1900
Africa
Asia
Southeast asia
Change in imperial states
1450-1750
Spain
Portugal
1750-1900
Spain and portugal (declining)
Great britain, france, dutch (continued)
Germany, italy, belgium, united states, japan (new)
Private to state control
Belgian congo in africa
Private colony held by king leopold II of belgium
Belgium was relatively new so they focused on their own state
King leopold II arranged to gain control of the congo free state
Humanitarian
Convert the indigenous people to christianity
Bring them the glories of western education
These reasons covered up the brutal exploitations of the colony for raw materials
Rubber
Caused many casualties
Once found out caused lots of anger so belgium took control of the colony in 1908 and administered it themselves
Diplomacy and warfare in africa
Diplomacy: the act of making political agreements by means of dialogue and negotiation, not warfare
Berlin conference
1884-1885
European states were claiming parts of africa
Scramble for africa
State competition fueled imperialism
States believed to become a great power they must have the most territory
Otto van bismarck of germany called the european imperial powers to the berlin conference to split up africa amongst themselves instead of warfare
They did not invite african leaders
That led to drawing borders in africa that divided previously united ethnic groups and brought together rival ethnic groups
Warfare
French in algeria
France was in debt to algeria who supplied them with wheat
France set a diplomat to discuss a delay in payment
Algerian leader was angered and hit the french diplomat three times with a fly swatter
Caused the french to send 35,000 troops to invade algeria and claim the city and then continue to take parts of north africa
Settler colonies
Settler colonies: A colony in which an imperial power claims an already inhabited territory and sends its own people to set up an outpost of their own society
British established settler colonies in south pacific territories
Western australia
South australia
New zealand
Waves of british settlers came which created a neo-european society that brought many diseases that killed lots of indigenous populations
Aborigines
Maori
Conquering neighboring territories
Conquering neighbors
United states
Louisiana purchase in 1803 and wars with mexico and spain in the 19th century caused the desire to expand westward into neighboring territories
Manifest destiny
Calling from God to possess all the territory from the atlantic to the pacific oceans
In order to complete the conquest, the U.S. government forcibly moved indigenous peoples onto reservations
Forcible assimilation
Indigenous children were forced into american style boarding schools where their cultures were stripped and they were americanized
Russia
Pan-slavism: unite all slavic peoples under russian authority, including all who currently live under ottoman and austrian rule
This and the desire for great power caused them to want to conquer neighboring states
1860 established a trading post on the pacific coast and vladivostok
Japan
Rapid industrialization during the meiji restoration created lots of railroads and modernized its military
Started building an empire through imperialism
Expanded its sphere of influence over korea, manchuria, and part of china
Resistance of imperial rule
Causes of resistance
Increasing questions about political authority
Many imperial powers introduced western style education to some folks under their imperial thumb
Popular sovereignty and social contract formed from enlightenment ideas caused the educated to question the legitimacy of imperial powers
Growing sense of nationalism
When imperial powers imposed their will and their language and their culture on various colonized peoples, that had a way of inducing a sense of nationalism in the conquered peoples
Led colonized peoples to fight colonization and fight for a state of their own
How people resisted imperial intrusion
Direct resistance
People fought back with weapons and violence
Indian rebellion of 1857
Sought to throw of british domination
Rebellion of tupac amaru II in peru
Yaa asantewaa war in west africa
Britain wanted more territory in west africa to expand their gold coast colony
Made 4 attempts to conquer the assante kingdom for more gold and riches
5th attempt the war of the golden stool
Assante kingdom owned a golden stool that represented cultural unity and believed that whoever sat on the stool possessed the authority to rule their people
The british thought they could take over their kingdom if one of their people sat on the stool
Queen mother of the assante named yaa asantewaa fought back against british intrusion through armed violence and encouraged men to fight by hurting their egos
The british claimed assante territory using their more advanced weaponry
Creation of new states
Creation of the cherokee nation at the edge of the u.s.
America travelled westward and gained territory but clashed with indigenous peoples
The cherokee assimilated to american culture
Congress passed the indian removal act in 1835
Removed the cherokee and other indigenous groups from eastern territory to oklahoma territory in the west
The cherokee developed a new state on the edge of the new territory including a semi-autonomous government and judicial system
Expansion westward caused the establishment of the oklahoma state and marginalization of the cherokee state
Religious rebellions
Ghost dance movement in north america
Xhosa cattle killing movement in southern africa
The british try to take over the xhosa people and continue to take their land until there isn’t enough for them to survive
Xhosa cattle were dying from european diseases
Religious movement began through a prophecy that claimed if the xhosa people slaughtered their cattle then new healthy cattle would rise up to replace them
Many cattle were killed and caused them to starve while british rule increased
Global economic changes from the second wave of imperialism
Development of export economies
Need for raw materials
Copper
Cotton
Rubber
Gold
Diamonds
Export economies: economies primarily focused on the export of raw materials or goods for distant markets
Most people in africa, southeast asia, or the americas were subsistence farmers before colonization
Subsistence farming: the farmers grew a variety of foods that they and their families consumed to survive
Once imperial powers showed up they started reorganizing colonial economies around the export of cash crops or natural resources
Imperial powers fundamentally transformed colonial economies to serve their own interests, namely, the extraction of natural resources or the production of industrial crops
Causes of economic development
Imperial powers needed raw materials for industrial factories
Economies of egypt and india were highly depended on exporting cotton to britain
They used to get their cotton supply from the americas but stopped because of the civil war
Extraction of palm oil in west africa
Using enslaved labor, palm oil plantations were established throughout west africa and their colonial economies were dominated by their export
Guano in the pacific and atlantic islands
The need to supply food to growing urban centers
A major effect of industrialization was urbanization
Migration to and growth of cities
As these cities grew more populous there were more a and more people to feed, and therefore they had to import food from elsewhere
Some colonial economies were reorganized to shifting cash crop cultivation of popular food like sugar, coffee, and meat
Effects of economic development
Profits from exports were used to purchase finished manufactured goods
Britain's colonial holding doubled in the 19th century
Focused on integrating into a network of trade instead of adding territory
Colonies provided a closed market for manufactured goods
Whatever profits they gained from the export of natural resources or mineral extraction went to purchasing the finished manufactured goods exported by imperial states
A growing economic dependence of colonial people on their imperial parents
The reorganization of colonial economies served only the interest of the colonizing overlords not the indigenous peoples
Economic imperialism
Economic imperialism: the act of one state extending control over another state by economic means
The opium wars
China went from the center of world power to the edges because they failed to industrialize which left them vulnerable to other industrial powers
China restricted britain to one trading port called the port of canton which caused a trade imbalance between the two states
Silk, porcelain, and tea from china were high demands in britain, while there was little demand for goods from britain in china
China was getting british silver while britain wasn’t getting any chinese silver
Britain increased their colonial production of opium in india and exported it to china illegally
Highly addictive and destructive drug
The chinese got addicted and britain started gaining silver from china
Qing officials did not like that and banned the importation of opium and seized and destroyed british shipments of it
The british showed up and showed how industrialized military might wins every time
Britain beat china and forced them to sign the treaty of nanjing
Opened several new trading ports to the british
Gave the british economic influence over the chinese
In the middle of the 19th century, the qing dynasty began to weaken and fracture for all kinds of reasons, but a major reason was the taiping rebellion in the middle of the 19th century
Religious movement among ethnic hans that sought to get rid of the foreign manchus rulers of the qing dynasty
Successful for 15 years until the qing military crushed the rebellion but spent lots of money and caused the deaths of 20-30 million people
The qing remained in power but lost lots of money from the rebellion which caused them to not be able to industrialize
Britain and france took advantage of the china’s instability
Second opium war
The french joined the british in defeating the chinese
Led to further unequal treaties and more trading ports open to western powers
China could not handle industrialized powers so multiple western european nations along with japan and russia carved china into various spheres of influence
China was dominated economically by these powers
Port of buenos aires
Occurred in the america, argentina
During the 19th century, british businesses and banks invested heavily in argentina to improve its infrastructure including the construction of thousands of miles of railroads
These businesses were planning to extract raw materials from argentina
Port of buenos aires was established
Funded by british firms
Located close to their factories
Increase in exports to britain
Dependence on british investment
Trade in commodities
Commodity: any good that can be bought and sold on the market
Commodity trade
Cotton
India and egypt
Exported to britain and other european countries
Colonial economies dependant on external demand
Palm oil
Sub-saharan africa
Shape the world economy in order to give imperial powers in Europe and the u.s. a distinct economic advantage to the detriment of colonial populations themselves
Causes of migration
Migration: economic causes
The more the world industrialized, the more people began to migrate
Causes of migration
Demographic change
The global population exploded
The population of europe grew due to new medicines and increasingly varied diets that expanded people's life spans
Rural people were experiencing poverty which pushed them to migrate to urban industrial cities to find jobs
Famine
Irish potato famine in the 1840s
Potatoes made up a big portion of the irish’s diet, but a blight struck their potato crops and caused widespread famine where millions of irish poor died of starvation and millions more immigrated elsewhere
Migration: technological causes
New modes of cheap transportation like the railroad and steamship facilitated this wave of migrations both for those who migrated within their own country and those that migrated internationally
Vast majority of immigrants settled in urban centers in both imperial states and in colonial territories where manufacturing jobs were abundant
Urbanization: massive growth in cities
Many migrants left their homes and never returned from their destination societies but some of them took advantage of the cheap transportation and returned home
Lebanese diaspora
Hundreds of thousands of lebanese merchants migrated to places like argentina and brazil both for economic opportunity and to escape the religious persecution of the ottoman empire
Migration: economic causes
People moving in order to find work
Migration for work
Voluntary migration
Millions of irish, italian, and german immigrants left their home societies and relocated to te urban centers of the east coast of america
Millions of chinese immigrants relocated on the western coast, and found work in the booming railroad industry
Coerced and semi-coerced labor
Coerced
The atlantic slave trade was sill booming at the beginning of this period
Convict labor
British and french established penal colonies in various places throughout their empires like french guiana and british australia
Semi-coerced labor
Indentured servitude
Describes an arrangement in which a laborer would sign a contract to work for a certain number of years, usually between three and seven, in exchange for free passage to their destination
Indentured servitude
The british government facilitated the migration of indentured indians to various parts of their empire including the caribbean, africa, and southeast asia
The british also operated tin mines in malaysia where they made use of chinese indentured servants who were suffering the effects of poverty at home
Effects of migration
Effect #1: gender imbalance
Women assuming masculine roles
More women than men in home societies because men were migrating to find jobs, so women were taking on traditionally male roles
Subsistence farming
Family structures in those places began to change
South africa
Men were absent in larger numbers than many other places
60% of the households were now led by women
Some women in africa were able to sell excess food like cassava on the market and were able to gain financial independence
As more women were getting financial independence they created a saying “what is man? I have my own money”
Effect #2: ethnic enclaves
Ethnic enclave: a geographic area with a high concentration of people of the same ethnicity and culture within a foreign culture
Outpost
Provided a small outpost of the migrants’ culture in the receiving society where they spoke their native language, practiced their religion, and ate ethnically distinct foods from home
Cultural diffusion
The presence of these communities also contributed to cultural diffusion of their home cultures int their receiving societies
Irish enclaves were present in cities in the eastern united states and the u.s. was protestant, but the increase of irish migrants encouraged the unprecedented growth of catholicism in the u.s.
Effect #3: nativism
Nativism: a policy of protecting the interests of native born people over against the interests of immigrants
Nativism is rooted in ethnic and racial prejudice, or a fear of cultural difference
The irish in the u.s. were seen as less than because they were irish
Government policies
Chinese exclusion act
Passed in the united states
Banned chinese immigration to the united states
White australia policy
Passed by the british government
Cut off the flow of asian immigrants into australia
Unit 7: Global Conflict (1900 - Present)
Shifting of state power
The ottoman empire
By the end of the century, many of their maritime and land-based empires would fall apart and give rise to new states
Young ottomans
Western educated
Liberal political reforms
Young turks
Ottoman modernization
Nationalism led to ottomans envisioned as turks
Ottoman reforms
Secularization of schools and law codes
Establishment of political elections
Imposition of turkish language
By implementing these nationalistic policies, they alienated many of the other minorities within the empire, not least the arabs
As a result, those groups experienced their own waves of nationalism which further fractured the empire
The russian revolution
Nicolas II accommodated the demands of constitution, labor unions, and political parties, but did not reform
The war and the continued difficulties of industrialization led to the russian revolution of 1917 which was led by marxist visionary vladimir lenin who was the leader of a political group known as the bolsheviks
Successful and caused the start of the soviet union
Collapse of qing china
Qing problems
Taiping rebellion
Put down by qing authorities
Cost millions of lives
Loss of opium wars
Loss of sino-japanese war
China was no match for industrialized japan
Society of righteous and harmonious fists
Led the boxer rebellion against the foreign qing rulers
The mexican revolution
Mexico led by dictator porfirio diaz
People disliked his policies and revolted
After years of war, mexico became a republic with a constitution
Causes of world war I
Militarism
The belief that states ought to build up strong militaries and employ them aggressively to protect their own interests
Germany had a strong military and resources, france did not have a strong military, and britain had a strong military but ran out of resources quickly
The alliance system
Triple alliance
Germany, italy, austro-hungarian empire
Triple entente
Britain, france, russia
Imperialism and its effects
One of the most potent causes for imperialism was the desire to project power on the world stage
Nationalism
Nationalistic messages were portrayed through schools, military service, and mass media
A minor assassination
Serbian nationalist Gavrilo princip assassinated archduke franz ferdinand of the austro-hungarian empire in the balkans
How world war I was fought
How the war was fought
Total war: a war which requires the mobilization of a country’s entire population, both military and civilian, in order to fight
These propaganda campaigns demonized enemies and often exaggerated the atrocities those enemies were committing
Used intensified forms of nationalism
People in various states began to view the world as king of like a collection of enemy rivals and that their national identities were the most important thing about them
Total war strategies
New military technologies made world war I one of the deadliest wars in human history
Machine guns
Chemical gas
Tanks
Trench warfare
Each side dug miles of trenches opposite each other and hunkered down for protection
This situation led to years of stalemates where casualties mounted but neither side made much progress
The end of the war
Lasted for 4 years
The U.S. joined powers with the allies (britain and france)
Caused by germany sinking a U.S. ship titled the lusitania
War ended in 1918 with the signing of the treaty of versailles
Germany and central powers lost
Allied powers won
Global economy between the world wars
How governments go involved in trying to solve those crisis
German hyperinflation
Germany was in debt after losing world war I, so they printed more money because of hyperinflation
They owed reparations to britain and france but couldn’t pay them so britain and france were in debt to the u.s.
Soviet union couldn’t pay off debts
Colonial governments suffered too because they had come to depend on the economies of their parent countries
Eventually stabilized in 1924 when germany borrowed money from the u.s. and paid britain and france
Soviet economics
Vladimir lenin introduced new economic policy
Instituted in 1923
Introduced some limited free market principles
The biggest institutions remained under state control
Joseph stalin took over and introduced five year plans
Aimed to multiply soviet industrial capacity by five in five years
Collectivization of agriculture: merging small privately owned farms into large, sprawling collective farms owned by the state
The great depression
America which eventually spread to the rest of the world
Franklin d. Roosevelt’s new deal
The government put people to work on infrastructure projects
Introduced a government sponsored retirement program
Created government medical insurance for elderly/children
Unresolved tensions after world war I
European powers and the japanese maintained their colonial holdings in the interwar period, and in some cases, states gained territory as a result of war
The mandate system
Middle eastern territories would become mandates administered by the league of nations
Three-tiered structure to classify these territorial holdings
Class C mandates
Smallest population and least developed
Treated as colonies
Several islands in the pacific
Class B mandates
Larger population but still underdeveloped
Most of germany’s colonies in africa
Class A mandates
Large populations and sufficiently developed
Suitable for independence and self-rule
Japan expands
Invaded manchuria
Quit the league of nations to continue expansions
Conquered territory in the pacific and dubbed its area of influence the greater east asia co-prosperity sphere
Anti-imperial resistance
Colonial resistance
Indian national congress
Formed before the war in the late 19th century
Formally petitioning the british government for greater degrees of self rule in india
African national congress
Founded in south africa by western educated lawyers and journalists
Dedicated itself to obtaining equal rights for colonial subjects in south africa
Pan-africanism: aimed for the equality and unity of all black people across the world
The causes of world war II
Cause #1: unsustainable peace
WWI grievances
Italy
Bitter because they did not receive promised land grants
Germany
Required reparations payments ruined their economy
Forced demilitarization, made them vulnerable
War guilt clause: germany forced to accept entire blame for the war
Established by britain and france to humiliate germany on the world stage
Cause #2: continued imperialism
Japan expanded their empire in asia
Italy conquered ethiopia
Germany expanded into rhineland, czechoslovakia, and austria
Cause #3: economic crisis
The great depression caused lots of people to be unemployed and so they believed in authoritarian leaders to make everything better
Cause #4: fascism/totalitarianism
Soviet union
Joseph Stalin wanted the whole world to be communist
Italy
Fascism: a political philosophy characterized by extreme nationalism, authoritarian leadership, and militaristic means to achieve its goals
Benito mussolini established a fascist state
Organized italy to serve his vision
Lowered standards of living
Social security and public services
Germany
Fascist
Nazi party under adolf hitler
Established enemies
Socialists
Communists
Jews
It was precisely hitler’s ability to put language to germany’s humiliation and suffering that made his cure so compelling
Hitler’s policies
Cancel reparations payment
Remilitarize germany
Territorial expansion (lebensraum which means living space)
Eliminate “impure” races
How world war II was fought
Another total war
Total war: a war that requires the mobilization of a country’s entire population, both military and civilian, in order to fight
The most immediate cause of the war was hitler’s invasion of poland
Alliances
Axis powers
Germany, italy, and japan (fascists)
Allied powers
Britain, france, soviet union, and the U.S. (soviets and americans joined later)
Mobilization
Continuities from WWI include how governments prepared for and waged this war while changes include the scope of the war and how deadly it was
WWII propaganda
Used to provoke nationalism in its people
Used to demonize their enemies
Used to sow fear
Assemble massive armies
Keep civilians sacrificing on the home front
Ideologies of WWII
Facism
The glorification of the state
The use of militaristic means
Serves the interests of the state
Communism
Soviet economy
Rapid industrialization through five year plans
Brutal and unflinching demands
Democracy
Propaganda dubbed it a “people’s war”
Government promised expansion of welfare
Strategies and technology
Strategies
Blitzkrieg: a shock and awe strategy that aimed to eliminate the enemy with incredible speed
Established in germany
Firebombing: small clusters of explosive devices that were meant to fall in urban areas and not do damage necessarily with a big blast but by starting fires
Established by allied powers
Technologies
Atomic bomb
Established in the U.S.
Could wipe out an entire city
Mass atrocities in the 20th century
Causes of mass atrocities
Two world wars
About 120 million deaths
50% were civilian deaths
New technologies
Aerial warfare
Firebombing
Atomic bomb
Rise of extremist political ideologies
The armenian genocide
Ottoman authorities began a program of mass extermination of armenians or relocation where they were malnourished and brutalized
The holocaust
Nuremberg laws: stripped the rights of jews and forced them into ghettos where they were marginalized, abused, and brutalized
Established concentration camps where jews were sent for hard labor
Established extermination camps where jews were sent to be murdered with industrial precision and efficiency
The cambodian genocide
Exterminated anything western in cambodia
Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization (1900 - Present)
Context for the cold war and decolonization
Two superpowers arise
Cold war: a state of hostility that exists between two states chiefly characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare
The cold war was a standoff between the U.S. and soviet union
U.S. and Soviet union arose due to economic and technological advantages
Economic advantages
U.S.
Mobilization of world war II caused a complete economic turn around from the great depression
Did not experience destructive consequences of the war unlike european countries
Through the marshall plan, the U.S. sent over $13 billion in aid for economic recovery in war torn nations and on the whole, the nations that received those funds experienced their own economic revivals
All led to the balance of power being shifted toward the u.s.
Soviet union
Although that kind of command economy drew skepticism from free market minded folks, in the years leading up to world war II, the soviet economy did grow rapidly, even if that growth led to the suffering and death of millions of soviet citizens
Soviet economy
Natural resources
Enormous territory
Large population
Investment before WWII
Infrastructure was already in place
Technological advantages
The united states developed the most advanced and devastating technology of the war, namely, the atomic bomb
Soviet union started creating their own atomic bombs
Decolonization: context
Again colonial troops fought for their imperial parents’ cause, but this time, after the war was over and there appeared to be no clear intention of the imperial countries to grant independence to their colonies, massive anti-imperial movements broke out across the world
The cold war
Causes of the cold war
Cold war: a state of hostility that exists between two states chiefly characterized by an ideological struggle rather than open warfare
The cold war was a standoff between the U.S. and soviet union
Cold war causes
Conflicting ideologies
Democratic capitalism of the united states
Democratic capitalism: emphasizes free market economies and political participation from citizens
Authoritarian communism of the soviet union
Authoritarian communism: emphasizes strict government control of economy and redistribution of wealth equally to all citizens who have no voice in the government
Both ideologies are universalizing ideas, meaning that those who hold them want everyone else to hold them as well
Mutual mistrust
Started even before world war II had ended
Allied powers met in a series of conferences to discuss postwar plans in which they decided that central and eastern european countries would be able to hold free elections (democracy and capitalism)
Tehran, bretton woods, potsdam
The soviet union went against their agreements because they were communist
Soviet union also refused to give up their part of germany, which also went against agreements
Effects of the cold war
As the process of decolonization was creating dozens of brand new states across the world, the u.s. and the soviet union raced to influence each of these new states and win them to their respective sides
Some groups and individuals in these newly forming states refused to be pawns in this global conflict which in many ways would make them dependent on more powerful nations
Non-aligned movement
By feigning support food one side or the other, some non-aligned states were able to gain weapons and resources that they needed for their own defense and development
The effects of the cold war
New military alliances
Western nations
North atlantic treaty organization (NATO)
Against soviet union and their allies
Soviet union
Warsaw pact
Against united states and their allies
Nuclear proliferation
United states created atomic bomb in 1945
Soviet union created atomic bomb in 1949
United states created hydrogen bomb in 1951
Soviet union created hydrogen bomb in 1953
Arms race
Cuban missile crisis
Soviet union set up missiles in cuba
United states set up missiles in turkey
Missiles were not fired but showed how nuclear proliferation was a problem
Nuclear non-proliferation treaty
Nuclear powers to prevent non-nuclear countries from developing nuclear weapons
Proxy wars
Small local wars in africa, asia, and latin america that the united states and soviet union took sides on
Korean war
North korea occupied by the soviets and south korea occupied by the us
Once they withdrew north korea invaded south korea to make it one communist state so the united nations helped the south while the soviets helped the north
Angolan civil war
Angola was a portuguese colony and was made of a bunch of small nations and won independence so the soviets, united states, and south africa each helped some of those nations in the fight to control angola
Contra war
U.s. supported contras against the sandinista national liberation front who were socialists and had support from the soviets and each nation was trying to take control of nicaragua
Spread of communism
Communism in china
Chinese nationalist party vs. chinese communist party
Rivalry stopped for a bit to stop japanese invasion
Japan was defeated
Civil war started again and the communist party won with the help of the soviets
Their leader mao zedong created the people’s republic of china
Collectivization of agriculture
Soviet union
Sparked internal rebellion
Millions of people died because of famine
China
Relatively peaceful process
Communist party had built up trust with peasants during the civil war period
Great leap forward: An economic plan to rapidly industrialize china through the development of heavy industry
Industrialization
Soviet union
Stalin’s five year plans aimed to industrialize by focusing mainly on urban areas
China
Mao focused on small-scale industrialization in rural areas
Other socialist/communist movements
Egypt
Claimed the suez canal to themselves which angered european powers, but the soviets threatened them with nuclear weapons and so they backed off
Vietnam
Became independent with a communist north korea and anti-communist south korea
Communist government of the north began a program of land redistribution
A few wealthy landowners held nearly all of vietnam’s agricultural land
Under this program ownership was canceled and land was given to the rural peasantry
Cuba
Fidel castro led a communist revolution
Attempted to purge cube of dependence on and subservience to united states
With support from soviet union, launched a program of land redistribution and raised wages
Resulted in the transfer of about 15% of cuba’s wealth from the rich to the poor
Decolonization
Negotiated independence
India
Britain’s most prosperous and valuable colony
Even though the official process of india’s independence was negotiated and peaceful, the establishment of india as a new state was fraught with incredible violence
Africa
Gold coast
Colony of great britain
Became ghana
Armed conflict
For those colonies in which a large population of european settlers had made their homes, hey resisted decolonization and that resistance caused outbreaks of violence in the name of independence
Independence movement
In the french colony of algeria
Africa
Angola
Problems of colonial boundaries
In some cases those boundaries brought rival groups together and in other cases those boundaries split ethnic and religious groups apart
State building after decolonization
Conflict in new states
Boundary conflicts
Partition of india
Independence through negotiation
Hindu majority
Muslim minority
Split into two states, pakistan and india
Muslims were the minority in every state except in kashmir
Pakistanis assumed that kashmir would be added to their territory
The ruler of the state was hindu
Region had many valuable natural resources
The united nations stepped in to mediate the dispute and insisted that the people of kashmir themselves vote on the territorial outcome of their state which, given their muslim population, would have certainly resulted in pakistan annexing kashmir
Did not occur
Kashmir = conflict
Creation of israel
Palestine
Was under ottoman rule until it fell and britain gained control
Muslim majority
In addition to zionism, this migration was encouraged by the balfour declaration which was a pledge by the british to make palestine a home for the jews
People fought back
Government involvement in economies
Government and economics
Gamal abdel nasser - egypt
Nationalized the suez canal (1956) which brought it under egyptian control
When western powers invaded, nasser gained soviet support to end the conflict
Oversaw completion of the aswan high dam on the nile river (1970)
Provided electricity and irrigation for much of egypt
Initiated social welfare reforms which included free schooling and healthcare
Indira gandhi - india
Implemented a series of five year socialist economic plans
Aimed to allow the government to assert more control over the economy instead of relying on foreign aid from powerful western nations
Adopted the green revolution which used science to develop high-yielding grain
Oversaw the nationalization of key indian industries and introduced significant government regulations on others
Her nationalization of banks and the increase of taxes on the wealthy, along with her 20-point economic plan, reduced inflation and increased production throughout india
Migrations to metropoles
Metropoles: designated the territory of the imperial country in distinction from their colonial holdings during the age of imperialism
Over the long history of colonialism, imperial states and their colonies developed both cultural and economic connections with one another
So even if the presence of the imperial power was unwelcome in a colony, the colonial people grew familiar with the customs and culture of that occupying power
Resistance to power structures
Nonviolent resistance
Mohandas gandhi
Promoted nonviolence and civil disobedience
Member of the indian national congress
Became its leader by 1921
Nonviolence in india
Homespun movement
In protest of britain’s economic dominance of india’s cotton industry, gandhi encouraged his followers to boycott british made textiles and make their own clothes at home
Salt march
A reaction against the british salt monopoly
After world war II, britain no longer had the resources or overwhelming public support to continue to resist indian independence
Martin luther king jr.
Black baptist minister in the united states
Took inspiration from gandhi’s methods
Fought against america’s racial segregation laws
Nonviolence in the u.s.
Civil rights movement
Aimed to secure equal rights for black americans
Affected political change as the united states supreme court outlawed racial discrimination in school in the 1950s and congress passed anti-discrimination laws in the 1960s
Montgomery bus boycott
Black americans boycotted the city’s public transportation system
Nelson mandela
Once south africa had secured its independence from great britain, the minority white population rose to power and introduced legalized racial segregation under a group of policies known as apartheid
Originally started with non-violent acts of protest, but eventually changed his tactics to violence
Intensification of conflict
Augusto pinochet
Assumed power and ruled over chile as a dictator, and with that power, he violently suppressed opposition to his leadership
Idi amin
Uganda
The violence targeted ethnic groups and in others it targeted political enemies and in still others it targeted seemingly random groups and individuals whom amin deemed his enemies
Military industrial complex
Violence against civilians
Terrorism
The end of the cold war
Advancements in the united states
SDI planned to shoot soviet union’s nuclear weapons from outer space
Kept creating nuclear weapons while soviet union tried to match them
Troubles in afghanistan
Afghanistan was backed up by united states and they were going against the soviet union which further depressed the soviet economy
Gorbachev’s policies
Soviet economic crisis
Foreign trade was extremely limited
Government control of agriculture stifled the industry
Farmers lacked freedom to decide what to plant and how to price crops
Soviet bloc countries continued to grow discontent with soviet oppression
Gorbachev’s policies
Perestroika
A restructuring of the economy to address economic woes by reducing the level of central planning from the government
Glasnost
Means “openness”
All the dissent and criticism against the government and its policies that had been brutally silenced by previous leaders was now allowed
Ceased military intervention
Soviet union would no longer use military intervention in order to prop up communist governments in its own sphere of influence
Democratic reform movements erupted in one eastern european country after another, and that led to similar reform movements in the soviet union proper as people in lithuania, georgia, and other states began declaring independence and breaking free from soviet control
Unit 9: Globalization (1900 - Present)
How technology made globalization possible
Globalization
Globalization: the phenomenon by which trade and technology have created a politically, economically, and socially interconnected world
Each of these new technologies transformed the world in some way, whether by increasing lifespans, making energy more accessible, or further connecting the world into a globalized economy
Solve the problem of geographical distance
Communication technology
Radio
Television
Cellular
Internet
Transportation technology
Automobiles
Air travel
Shipping containers
Energy technology
Petroleum
Not only is petroleum refined into fuel for cars and planes, but it has been used to generate electricity which has largely been democratized, at least throughout the developed world
Replaced coal as the main power source of industrial manufacturing
Increased production in order to meet the demand for consumer goods across the world
Nuclear power
Emits very little pollution from its chemical reactions
Pitched as the cleaner alternative to fossil fuels like petroleum
Medical technology
Antibiotics
Vaccines
Early forms of this practice were around in 17th century chia, but in the 20th century medical advances produced an astonishing number of vaccines against some of the world’s most persistent diseases like measles, pneumonia, polio, and influenza
Birth control
Agricultural technology
Commercial farming
Farmers’ main goal is to sell agricultural products on the market and maximize profits
Opposed to subsistence farming which was farmers’ main goal is to grow small-scale crops mainly for their own consumption
Green revolution
Genetic modification applied to food
Farmers were encouraged to double-crop, or plant more than one crop in the same soil per year, which is how more food was produced
But that kind of intensive use of the soil led to exhaustion and erosion
Spread of disease in a globalized world
Diseases associated with poverty
Populations of wealthy nations with well developed healthcare systems have far greater access to the various medical interventions that address disease and less developed nations, well, don’t
Malaria
A disease spread by infected mosquitos and it typically occurs in large numbers throughout warmer, tropical regions
Tuberculosis
An airborne disease that severely affects the lungs and can be fatal
Epidemics and pandemics
Spread of disease caused social disruption which meant people were dying, but it also caused medical advances
1918 influenza pandemic
Spanish flu
Spread rapidly and globally along travel and trade routes because of all of the increasing global interconnection
Claimed near 50 million lives over the course of 2 years which had a massive impact on demographics around the world
HIV/AIDS
Starting in the 1980s, led to the deaths of millions of people worldwide
Covid-19
Diseases associated with aging
Alzheimer’s disease
A form of dementia that disproportionately affects the aging population
Heart disease
Effects of globalization on the environment
Land problems
Deforestation
The large-scale clearing of trees in a geographical area
Deforestation effects
Urbanization
The increasing size and populations of cities
Has created the problem of urban sprawl
The increasing size of the urban footprint
Farmland
Large commercial farms keep the world’s growing population fed
Largely impacts the world’s forests, especially the rainforests
Provide a home to an astonishing number of animal species that have since become endangered or have gone extinct through deforestation
Desertification
The transformation of once fertile land into infertile land
Air and water problems
Decline in air quality
Global spread of industry contributes to significant air pollution
Largely dependent on fossil fuels for energy
Increased competition over fresh water supply
Climate change
Climate change: the warming of the planet due to the release of greenhouse gasses
The fact that the planet is warming up is beyond debate
The debate centers around the causes of that warming since the potential solutions to the problem require political action
One side argues that climate change is based on human causes while the other argues it is based on natural causes
Climate change debate
What if climate change is caused by humans and industrialization?
Then addressing the problem requires societies to slow their capacity for industrial growth which decreases their ability to grow economically
What does this mean for developed versus developing nations?
If the global community decides to restrict the amount of greenhouse gasses that can be emitted into the atmosphere, then developing nations who are attempting to improve their own economic standing will not have access to the very tools that create economic wellbeing in an industrialized world
Economics in a global age
The spread of free market economics
Now recall that the conditions of globalization have created an increasingly interconnected global economy that in some ways is new and in other ways continues trends we’ve considered in previous units
Neoliberalism: an economic emphasis on free market policies that include the lowering of trade barriers like tariffs, deregulation of industry, and the transfer of public sector industries to private parties
Economic liberalization
Ronald reagan
Started the liberalization of the U.S. economy
Against new deal policies and government spending on public services
Decreased taxes on the wealthy
Reduced government regulation of business
Cut spending on social welfare programs
Helped reduce inflation
Economic growth
Undermined the power of labor unions
More power to business leaders
Rich-poor gap increased
Margaret thatcher
Prime minister of the united kingdom
Deregulation of businesses
Reduction in income taxes
Privatization of state-owned assets
Helped reduce inflation
Economic growth
Undermined the power of labor unions
More power to business leaders
Rich-poor gap increased
Augusto pinochet
President of chile
Led away from state control
Led into the free market
Global and regional economic institutions
Globalized economics
Knowledge workers
Wealthier, developed countries became more characterized by knowledge workers whose main capital for work was not their bodies but rather their minds
During the 20th century, japan became a churning engine of manufacturing, but they eventually diversified their economy and in the later part of the 20th century became a world leader in the knowledge economy by focusing on banking, finance, and the development of information technology
Manufacturing
Increasingly located in developing countries where international businesses could save money by paying lower wages to foreign workers than was legal in their own countries
Global and regional economic institutions
The rise of these international institutions were both caused by globalization and have fostered further globalization by their policies
World trade organization
Exists to regulate trade on a global scale, the WTO promotes global trade by assisting in the negotiation of trade deals, acting as a moderator for various trade disputes, and creating initiatives to assist developing countries along the scale of development
Regional trade agreements
European union
Association of southeast asian nations
The rise of multinational corporations
Multinational corporations: an entity which is incorporated in one country but manufactures and sells goods in other countries
Multinational organizations
Multinational corporations
Employ knowledge workers in their own countries and manufacture goods for sale in other countries then sell those goods on a global market
Nestle
Example of a multinational corporation
Mahindra and mahindra
Another example, an indian company that makes automobiles, farm equipment, and many other things
Globalization and calls for reform
Movements for human rights
Liberation
Universal declaration of human rights
Created by the united nations in 1948
Sought to protect the rights of those citizens of the global community who had long been trampled under oppressive structure
Women
Children
United nations children’s emergency fund
Refugees
United nations first world conference on women
Also notable: the convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women
Proposed an international bill of rights for women
Provisions for women’s suffrage
The right to marry a spouse of their own choosing
Equality in education
The right to birth control
Other family planning measures
Negritude movement
Rights-based movement for black equality that emerged in the 1930s and 40s among french-speaking caribbean and african artists
Literary and ideological movement
Elevated blackness and black culture
Emphasized dignity over the racial legacy of colonialism and racism
Liberation theology
Latin american-born religious movement
Reenvisioning of the christian theology of the catholic church
Liberation theology emphasized christ’s concern for the poor and marginalized and called for the transformation of oppressive power structures
Greater access to education and politics
As the global human rights discourse progressed throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, reforms were implemented in terms of education and politics to be more inclusive of gender, race, class, and religion
Political and educational reforms
Women’s suffrage
When women’s right to vote was legally recognized:
United states: 1920
Turkey: 1934
Japan: 1945
Civil rights act
Passed as a result of the relentless pressure of the civil rights movement
Caste reservation system
Introduced in india
Protests against globalization
Reactions to globalization
Environmentalism
Greenpeace
Founded in 1971
Known for its use of nonviolent protest tactics to raise awareness and advocate for environmental protection
Protests, blockades, and direct interventions
World fair trade organization
Effect of globalization on culture
Arts, entertainment, and sports
In this period new communication technologies like the internet and new transportation technologies like air travel meant that people from various cultures around the world were interacting at a far greater pace than ever before
Global culture
Arts
Entertainment
Global sports
Both events, while certainly international in nature, are also platforms for the promotion of nationalism as athletes from various countries compete for the ultimate prize
Consumer culture
Consumer culture: describes a lifestyle devoted to spending money on mass produced material goods
Because the united states had an oversized influence on the global culture and economy after world war II, consumer culture became a global phenomenon
Global brands
Mcdonalds
Kfc
Coca-cola
Toyota
Resistance to globalization
Globalization: positive or negative?
Positive effects
Economic globalization was responsible for the largest bout of economic growth in the history of the world
On the whole, this economic increase has led to:
Better standards of living
Better healthcare that extends lifespans
Widespread education and literacy
Global movements for human rights have been implemented on a massive scale
Resistance to economic globalization
Bretton woods conference: a conference that aimed to construct a post-war world that would be more stable and contribute to economic flourishing
Global economic institutions
World bank
Created to provide financial assistance for the reconstruction of europe after world war II
International monetary fund
Facilitates monetary cooperation among all the member states of the world
Both
Promote free trade
Keep global currency values stable and free flowing
Evaluated by the value of the american dollar
Critics argue that this global approach to economics challenges and undermines more local economic decisions in the name of a global order
Critics argue that the bretton woods system carried out by the world bank, the IMF, and other global institutions like the world trade organization marginalized populations in the global south for the economic benefit of the global north
Resistance to cultural globalization
Because the advent of social media outlets like facebook and twitter have been a huge catalyst for the spread of culture, some states have resisted the intrusion of globalized culture by developing their own local social media sites
Institutions that developed in a globalized world
The united nations
A major effect of globalization has been the formation of several supranational organizations that have risen to help facilitate global cooperation
Global institutions
World bank
International monetary fund
United nations
Two purposes:
To prevent war
To facilitate cooperation
The general assembly
Includes representatives from all member nations, today includes 193 out of 195 states in the world
The body of the UN which is responsible for discussing and making policies for all member nations, many of which have humanitarian purposes
The security council
Responsible for keeping peace in a globalized world. It’s made up of five permanent members-the u.s., china, france, russia, and the united kingdom-and then ten rotating representatives among the various member nations
Has authority to send military peacekeepers to help stabilize violent situations and to impose economic sanctions on states that are creating the conditions for violence and war or otherwise violating