Comprehensive Psychology Study Guide: Research, Development, Biology, and Disorders
Research and Statistical Methods
Positive Correlation: A statistical relationship in which two separate variables increase or decrease together in the same direction.
Negative Correlation: A statistical relationship occurring when one variable increases while the other variable decreases.
Central Tendency: A single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identifying the central position within that data set. Key measures include:
Mean: The mathematical average.
Median: The middle score in a distribution.
Mode: The most frequently occurring score.
Variation: A measure of how spread out or dispersed the data points are within a distribution.
Percentile Rank: The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or lower than a specific score.
Normal Curve: A specific bell-shaped distribution where most scores are clustered near the middle (average), and scores become less frequent at the extremes.
Positive Skew: A distribution where the tail stretches toward the right side. This is caused by a few exceptionally high scores that pull the mean away from the median.
Negative Skew: A distribution where the tail stretches toward the left side. This occurs because of a few very low scores.
Regression Toward the Mean: The clinical and statistical phenomenon where extreme scores or events tend to move closer to the average (mean) over time during subsequent measurements.
Convenience Sampling: A non-probability sampling method where participants are chosen because they are the easiest to access (e.g., people nearby or readily available).
Qualitative Data: Information that is descriptive and non-numerical in nature. This type of data uses words or observations rather than numbers to capture characteristics.
Structured Interviews: A research tool involving interviews conducted with a predetermined set of questions that are asked to every participant in the same order.
Quantitative Data: Data that is numerical in nature; it consists of information that can be measured or counted using numbers.
Effect Size: A quantitative measure that indicates the strength of a result or the magnitude of the relationship between variables.
Directionality Problem: A challenge in correlational research where it is known that two variables are related, but it is unclear which variable caused the change in the other.
Third Variable Problem: A situation in research where an outside, unmeasured factor (a confounding variable) may be causing the observed relationship between two other variables.
Developmental Psychology
Maturation: The natural process of biological growth and development that occurs over time in a predictable sequence.
Reversibility: A cognitive ability involving the understanding that certain actions or mental operations can be undone or reversed to return to the original state.
Systematic Thinking: The ability to solve problems logically by following a step-by-step process.
Occupational Identity: An individual's sense of self and purpose based on their career goals, work aspirations, and professional role.
Familial Identity: A sense of self derived from one's role and relationships within a family structure.
Possible Selves: Cognitive representations or ideas about what an individual might become, what they would like to become, and what they are afraid of becoming in the future.
Biological Foundations of Behavior
Reflex Arc: An automatic, involuntary response pathway that processes information through the spinal cord, allowing for a quick reaction without immediate brain involvement.
Depolarization: The process during an action potential where a neuron becomes positively charged, causing it to fire or transmit an electrical signal.
Higher-Order Thinking: Complex mental processes such as reasoning, planning, abstract thought, and decision-making.
Lesioning: A research method involving the purposeful damaging of a specific part of the brain to study its function and the resulting behavioral changes.
Sensation and Perception
Synesthesia: A neurological condition where the stimulation of one sensory pathway (e.g., hearing) triggers an involuntary experience in a second sensory pathway (e.g., sight).
Ganglion Cells: Specific neurons in the retina that receive visual information from photoreceptors and send that data to the brain via the optic nerve.
Dichromatism: A form of color blindness characterized by the absence of one of the three basic cone types in the eye.
Monochromatism: A rare condition where an individual sees only in shades of gray, black, and white; essentially, seeing only one color.
Apparent Movement: A perceptual illusion where still images, when shown in rapid succession, appear to be moving.
States of Consciousness
Restoration of Resources Theory: A theory suggesting that the primary purpose of sleep is to restore and rejuvenate the physical body and the brain.
Consolidation Theory of Dreams: The idea that dreams serve a functional purpose in helping the brain process and strengthen new memories.
Memory Consolidation: The biological and cognitive process of converting short-term memories into long-term storage.
Learning and Behaviorism
Higher-Order Conditioning: A procedure in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that has already been conditioned, eventually producing a similar conditioned response.
Law of Effect: A principle stating that behaviors followed by favorable consequences (rewards) are more likely to be repeated, while behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Cognitive Map: A mental representation or internal "picture" of the layout of one's physical environment.
Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Yerkes-Dodson Law: A principle suggesting that there is an empirical relationship between arousal and performance. It dictates that:
Cognitive Appraisal: The personal interpretation and evaluation of a situation to determine its significance, which occurs before an emotional reaction is triggered.
Cognitive Psychology and Memory
Central Executive: The component of working memory that directs attention, manages information, and coordinates the activities of other subsystems.
Multi-Store Model: A model of memory flow suggesting that information passes through three distinct stages:
Forgetting Curve: A graphical representation showing that memory for new information tends to fade rapidly over time if there is no active review or rehearsal.
State-Dependent Memory: The phenomenon where information is more easily recalled when the individual is in the same physiological or emotional state as they were when the information was first learned.
Construct Validity: A measure of how accurately a test or tool measures the theoretical concept or "construct" it claims to be measuring.
Predictive Validity: The degree to which a test score can accurately predict future performance or behavior.
Phonemes: The smallest distinct units of sound in a language that can distinguish one word from another.
Semantics: The study of meaning in words, signs, and language structures.
Social Psychology
Group Polarization: The tendency for a group's existing attitudes or opinions to become more extreme following a discussion within the group.
Groupthink: A phenomenon occurring when the desire for harmony and conformity within a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making.
False Consensus Effect: An individual's tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share their beliefs, behaviors, and attitudes.
Psychological Disorders and Treatment
Eclectic Approach: A therapeutic strategy that involves using a variety of different techniques and perspectives from multiple therapy types to treat a patient.
Cluster A Disorders: A category of personality disorders characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors, including:
Paranoid Personality Disorder: Exhibiting extreme distrust and pervasive suspiciousness of others.
Schizoid Personality Disorder: Characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships and a limited range of emotional expression.
Schizotypal Personality Disorder: Involving odd thoughts, eccentric behaviors, and significant social anxiety.
Cluster B Disorders: A category of personality disorders characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors, including:
Antisocial Personality Disorder: A pattern of disregarding the rights of others and a profound lack of remorse for outcomes.
Histrionic Personality Disorder: Characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Involving an inflated sense of self-importance and a deep need for admiration.
Borderline Personality Disorder: Characterized by instability in emotions, self-image, and interpersonal relationships.
Cluster C Disorders: A category of personality disorders characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors, including:
Avoidant Personality Disorder: Pervasive avoidance of social relationships due to an intense fear of rejection or criticism.
Dependent Personality Disorder: An excessive, pervasive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive behavior.
Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder: Characterized by an extreme preoccupation with perfectionism, orderliness, and control.
Hostility: An attitude or behavioral pattern marked by anger and aggression toward others.
Cognitive Triad: A negative pattern of thinking found in individuals with depression, involving negative views about:
The Self
The World
The Future
Tardive Dyskinesia: A side effect involving involuntary, repetitive body movements (such as grimacing or eye blinking) caused by the long-term use of antipsychotic medications.