Child Development: History, Theories, and Methods
Chapter Overview: Childhood and Adolescence
General Information
Title: Childhood Adolescence: Voyages in Development
Author: Spencer A. Rathus
Edition: Sixth Edition
Copyright: © 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved.
What Is Child Development?
Field Definition: Child development is a field of study focused on understanding processes that govern:
Biological structures
Psychological traits
Behavior
Understanding
Ways of adapting to demands of life
Dimensions of Development
Types of Development:
Biological
Cognitive
Social
Emotional
Behavioral
Defining Development
Qualitative Changes: Changes in type or kind
Quantitative Changes: Changes in amount, often referred to as growth
Why Do Researchers Study Child Development?
To gain insight into:
Human nature
Origins of adult behavior
Origins of sex differences and gender roles
Effects of culture on development
Origins, prevention, and treatment of developmental problems
Optimize conditions of development
Historical Views of Children
Ancient Times and Middle Ages
Children viewed as innately evil
Age 7 considered the "age of reason"
Treated as miniature adults
John Locke
Proposed that the child comes into the world as a tabula rasa (blank slate)
Emphasized the role of environment and experience
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Argued that children are inherently good
Industrial Revolution
Childhood recognized as a distinct period
Children worked in factories from dawn to dusk
20th Century Developments
Introduced laws to protect child rights in labor and education
Established juvenile courts
Theories of Child Development
Theories help to:
Describe
Explain
Predict
Influence events under study
Controversies in Child Development
The Nature-Nurture Controversy
Questions the extent of human behavior contributed by:
Nature: Heredity
Nurture: Environmental influences
Theoretical Orientations
Nature-oriented Theories:
Cognitive-development theory
Biological theorists
Nurture-oriented Theories: Learning theories
Contemporary View: Acknowledges both nature and nurture
Methods to Study Child Development
Naturalistic Observation
Definition: Observations conducted in natural settings
Control for interference
Examples of Studies:
Activity levels of 3- to 5-year-olds in preschools
Language development across various countries
Socialization patterns in diverse cultures
Case Study
A detailed account of the behavior of an individual using:
Diaries
Direct observations
Questionnaires
Standardized tests
Interviews
Other records
Example Case Studies:
Piaget’s observations of children's behavior
Freud’s studies of his patients
Surveys
Used to study behaviors and mental processes not directly observable
Can include questionnaires or interviews to assess attitudes, possibly involving parents or teachers
Longitudinal Research
Same children are observed repeatedly over time
Research typically spans months or a few years, not decades
Drawbacks of Longitudinal Research
Participant attrition over time
Difficulty in enrolling volunteers for long-term participation
Requires patience from researchers
Older researchers may need younger colleagues to continue the study
Cross-Sectional Studies
Involves observing and comparing children of different ages
Cohort Effect: Similarities in behavior among a peer group stemming from shared age
Cross-Sequential Research
Combines longitudinal and cross-sectional methods
Birth and Birth Problems
Premature Babies
Risks Associated with Prematurity
Premature or Preterm Baby: Born before 37 weeks gestation (normal is 40 weeks)
Low-Birth-Weight Baby: Weighs less than 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg)
Small-for-Date: Low-birth-weight baby born at full term, typically due to maternal behavior during pregnancy
Consequences of Premature Birth and Low Birth Weight
Infant Mortality Rates:
Neonates weighing between 3.25 (1.5 kg) to 5.5 pounds are 7 times more likely to die than normal weight infants.
Weighing less than 3.3 pounds increases the likelihood of death nearly 100 times.
Delayed Neurological Development: Low birth weight correlates with poorer school performance.
Delay in Motor Development: Such as walking.
Signs of Prematurity
Physical Indicators:
Thin body
Fine downy hair (lanugo)
Oily white substance on skin (vernix)
Immature muscles and weak reflexes
Respiratory Distress Syndrome:
Includes breathing problems such as weak and irregular breathing
Treatment for Preterm Infants
Typically remain in hospital incubators
Temperature-controlled environment with infection protection
Parental Interaction:
Parents often interact less with preeminent babies due to perceived lack of attractiveness and irritating cries.
Responsive parental behavior correlates with better outcomes.
Infant Mortality Causes
Data from Save the Children, 2011 showing causes of child mortality, including:
Pneumonia: 18%
Malaria: 8%
Injury: 3%
AIDS: 2%
Measles: 1%
Neonatal causes: 41%
Diarrhea: 15%
Assessing Neonate Health
Apgar Score
Based on five signs of health:
General Appearance: Should be entirely pink
Heart Rate: 100-140 beats per minute
Reflex Response: includes crying, coughing, sneezing
Activity Level: Should show flexed arms and legs
Breathing
Interpretation of Scores:
7 or higher: no danger
Below 4: critical condition
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment
Measures reflexes, motor behavior, and muscle tone
Neonate Reflexes
Definition of Reflexes
Reflexes are simple, unlearned stereotypical responses elicited by specific types of stimulation and have survival value. They also indicate neural functioning.
Types of Reflexes
Rooting Reflex: Baby turns head and mouth toward stimuli on cheek, aiding in finding the nipple.
Sucking Reflex: Babies suck any object touching lips; will transition to voluntary sucking.
Moro or Startle Reflex: Involuntary reaction to sudden changes in position or loud noises
Involves arching the back and extending limbs before pulling them back to the chest.
Typically disappears 6-7 months after birth.
Grasping or Palmar Reflex: Babies grasp objects placed in their palms; usually lost by 3-4 months.
Stepping Reflex: Mimics walking when held; disappears by 3-4 months.
Babinski Reflex: Toes fan out in response to foot stroking; disappears at the end of the first year.
Tonic-neck Reflex: Arm and leg extend on one side when head is turned; appears when lying on back.
Sensory Processing in Neonates
Vision
Visual Acuity: Best at 7-9 inches, typically nearsighted.
Visual Accommodation: Neonates exhibit minimal self-adjustments; require closer distance for focus. Convergence occurs around 7-8 weeks.
Color Perception: Poor at birth due to underdeveloped cones but can see most colors by 4 months.
Hearing
Fetuses and neonates respond to sound, showing preference for mother's voice.
Smell and Taste
Smell: Highly developed at birth; show aversion to noxious smells and attraction to pleasant ones. Recognize familiar odors.
Taste: Sensitive to various tastes; prefer sweet flavors, demonstrated through facial expressions.
Touch and Pain
Neonates are sensitive to touch, which elicits reflex behaviors.
Historically thought to be insensitive to pain; they can indeed become conditioned to pain signals, showing distress in painful situations.
Sleep Patterns in Neonates
Spend approx. 16 hours daily sleeping, cycling between waking and sleeping.
By 6 months, many begin to sleep through the night.
Spend 50% of sleep in REM; reduces to 30% by 6 months and 20-25% by ages 2-3.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Definition
SIDS, also known as crib death, occurs unexpectedly while a baby sleeps and is most common between ages 2-4 months, particularly in infants sleeping on their stomachs.
Factors Contributing to SIDS
Occurs more frequently in boys, premature infants, low-birth-weight babies, children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, bottle-fed infants, and babies of teenage mothers.
Medulla and SIDS
The medulla controls breathing; studies found those who died from SIDS had less sensitivity to serotonin, affecting responsiveness.