Rebellions
Problems in the Regions
England:
Under Elizabeth, England was a more unified state compared to France and Spain, which were facing more significant social disorder.
Elizabeth’s reign witnessed only one serious rebellion—the Northern Rebellion of 1569, which was quickly suppressed.
The aristocracy and greater gentry shifted from building fortified castles to constructing comfortable but indefensible country houses, showing confidence in social order and peace.
The state had limited resources to enforce its power, yet social order was largely maintained.
Problems in Ireland
Policy of ‘Englishness’:
Elizabeth aimed to impose English religious and secular policies on Ireland.
In 1560, she declared herself Supreme Governor of the Church of Ireland, but struggled to enforce Protestantism on a largely Catholic and Gaelic population.
There were major cultural, linguistic, and legal differences between England and Ireland, which hindered English control.
Rebellions:
Conflicts were exacerbated by English “get rich quick” incomers and frequent use of martial law, leading to bad relations with the Gaelic Irish and Old English.
First rebellion (1569-1573): Sparked by grievances against English rule.
Second rebellion (1579-1582): Linked to a Spanish incursion into County Kerry, and worsened by the brutality of Lord Deputy of Ireland, Lord Grey of Wilton.
Third rebellion (1595-1603):
1595: Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone, led the rebellion in Ulster.
Spanish involvement: Spain attempted to assist the Irish by sending troops in the Armada of 1596, which increased English fears.
Battle of Yellow Ford (1598): Tyrone’s forces defeated the English, gaining control of most of Ireland beyond the Pale and threatening to create an independent, Catholic Ireland with Spanish support.
1599: Elizabeth sent the Earl of Essex as Lord Lieutenant. However, he disobeyed orders and made a truce with Tyrone, leaving Ireland vulnerable.
Tyrone’s advance (1601): Tyrone advanced south, aiming to join forces with Spanish troops near Kinsale.
English recovery (1601): English forces, under Lord Mountjoy and Sir George Carew, improved. Despite 3,000 Spanish troops landing in Kinsale, the English defeated Tyrone on Christmas Eve.
End of the rebellion: Tyrone retreated to Ulster and negotiated peace in March 1603. Unknown to him, Elizabeth had passed away, and Mountjoy offered favorable terms under the new king, James I.
Hugh O Neill’s Rebellion
Most serious change within Ireland was mounted by Hugh O Neill, Earl of Tyrone, between 1598-1603. Tyrone’s army of 6,000 men easily defeated much smaller English force at Battle of Yellow Ford in Aug 1598, threatening then to move on to dismantle all the control built up by plantation policy. Equally dangerous were the links that Tyrone had built with Spain, which promised to double the men at his disposal. Elizabeth quickly sent over a large force commanded by Earl of Essex, but it was a complete failure. He failed to follow specific instructions and failed to exploit the military advantages that existed on his arrival. Essex returned home in disgrace (losing his influence at court and driving him to rebellion). His replacement, Lord Mountjoy, managed to defeat Tyrone’s forces by constantly harassing them in year-round campaigns. Turning point was when a Spanish relief force was defeated at Kinsdale in 1602, depriving Tyrone of desperately needed assistance. From this moment, opposition to the English army rapidly crumbled and order was restored to the devastated country as the Crown passed from Elizabeth to James I.
Social Discontent and Rebellions in England
Overall Stability:
Despite hardships such as poor harvests, rising prices, and the plague, Elizabeth’s reign was largely a period of social order.
Northern Rebellion (1569): The most significant rebellion of Elizabeth’s reign, though it was not driven by the poor’s aspirations. It was rooted in political and religious motives.
Northern Rebellion (1569-70)
Main Locations:
Primarily in Durham and North Riding of Yorkshire, with a linked rising in Cumberland (1570).
Leaders and Motives:
Led by the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland, two powerful northern nobles.
Religious motives: Catholic opposition to Elizabeth’s religious policies.
Political motives: The rebels felt dishonored by the loss of power and influence in northern governance.
The rebellion was linked to a courtly conspiracy involving the Duke of Norfolk, who was planning to marry Mary, Queen of Scots, in an attempt to restore her to the Scottish throne.
Timeline and Key Events:
9 November 1569: The rebellion began.
14 November: Rebels seized Durham and held a Catholic Mass in the cathedral.
The rebels marched on York but did not attempt to capture the city or move further south.
They returned to Durham and besieged Barnard Castle, which fell on 14 December.
As Crown forces approached, the leaders fled to Scotland.
January 1570: The rebellion briefly restarted under Leonard Dacre but was defeated by Lord Hunsdon at Naworth.
Reasons for Failure:
Disorganization, unclear objectives, poor leadership, and lack of foreign support.
A decisive Crown response led by Elizabeth’s advisors, such as Cecil, who prepared strategic actions.
Ruthless punishment followed, with many rebels executed.
The rebellion’s geographical limits were evident, as support was confined to Durham and North Riding.
The northern nobility, though conservative, did not support the rebellion.
Earl of Essex Rebellion (1601)
Causes:
Essex, having fallen out of favor at court due to his declining influence, plotted an armed coup to overthrow Elizabeth’s ministers, particularly Cecil, and regain his position of power.
His plans were discovered before they could be fully executed, forcing him to surrender.
Outcome:
Essex was quickly tried, convicted, and executed in 1601.
Essex was considered an incompetent political figure, lacking in judgment.
His rebellion reflected broader discontent at the end of Elizabeth’s reign, where some were frustrated by the queen’s diminishing authority and the political influence of figures like Cecil.
Essex had come to the court as the stepson of the Earl of Leicester, and when Leicester died he became the leader of the group of courtiers who favoured stepping up military action against Spain. Elizabeth, however, did not favour such action and Essex found that he was unable to gain seats on the Privy Council or positions at court for his allies. Instead, the so-called Peace Party, led by Lord Burghley and his son, monopolised key posts. There is no doubt that Essex was infuriated by Queen’s