Chapter 27: Dictatorships and the Second World War
What were the most important characteristics of Communist and Fascist ideologies?
conservative and fascist ideologies take hold in the 1920s-30s
conservative dictatorships are limited in scope, while radical dictatorships (like communism and fascism) aim to reconstruct the fabric of society
Conservative Authoritarian and Radical Totalitarian Dictatorships
under traditional conservative authoritarianism, the state neither desired nor was able to control all aspects of its subjects’ lives: it only demanded obedience
after the first World War, authoritarianism revives but goes much further than it did before, especially in Germany, Italy, and Russia
the new form of radical authoritarian dictatorship is called totalitarianism
communist and fascist parties emerge in every country, causing problems for democratic rule
totalitarian states use propaganda and violent oppression to gain power
newly totalitarian leaders were inspired by the modern state when in war; they prized victory above all else and showed a callous disregard for human life
while liberals advocated for individual rights, totalitarians believed that individualism undermined the unity of the state
totalitarian states are usually led by charismatic leaders (Hitler, Stalin, etc.), who push the idea of a unified harmony, take down political opposition, and utilize propaganda
these leaders socially engineer the conditions of their state to promote state loyalty over individualism
Communism and Fascism
though communism and fascism both sought to revolutionize their states entirely, they had many differences in ideology
communism sought for the revolutionary working class to maintain total equality
Stalinism aggressively intervened in citizens’ lives to achieve this
meanwhile, fascists sought to build community on the national level; the nation was the embodiment of the people, the leader the embodiment of their collective will
unlike Communists, Fascists did not try to break down social classes but instead unite them towards supporting the state
while Communists sought to break down social classes worldwide, Fascists subscribed to ideas of racial homogenity and eugenics; Nazi Germany takes these ideas to the extreme:
in a radicalized view of eugenics, the Nazis sought to ‘purify’ the state of those deemed ‘unfit’ in the regime’s eyes: this included Jews, Sinti, Roma (these 3 groups are often derogratively called ‘Gypsies), other ethnic minorities, homosexuals, the disabled, etc.
this leads to the Holocaust
because both ideologies sought to revolutionize the world but in different ways, Communists and Fascists clashed, leaving many casualties in the 20th century
to note: neither Stalin nor Hitler ever achieved the total control each sought
they both needed powerful state bureaucracies and the support of the people to stay in power
How did Stalinism transform state and society in the Soviet Union?
some people say Lenin set the foundations for a totalitarian state in Russia; if this is true, then Stalin finished establishing totalitarianism
From Lenin to Stalin
after the civil war in Russia, Russia was devastated, and the worst famine in generations hit Russia
previously pro-Bolshevik groups revolted
in an attempt to smooth things over, the tough-but-flexible Lenin replaced War Communism with the New Economic Policy (NEP)
the NEP was highly successful because it brokered peace with the peasants of Russia, and because it restored Russia to its postwar economy by 1926
when Lenin suddenly died in 1924 without a successor, two men (Stalin and Trotsky) vied for power, but Stalin won:
it seemed like Trotsky would win, since he was an inspiring leader who planned the Bolshevik takeover and headed the Red Army
however, since Stalin (though a poor speaker) was more effective at gaining the support of the party, he rose to power
additionally, while Trotsky said that Russian socialism would only be successful if Russia made sure that socialism swept Europe, Stalin was more appealing by favoring a focus on Russia to build socialism in Russia only
Stalin also promised to revoke NEP and its capitalist reliance
between 1922 and 1927, Stalin crushed Trotsky, and by 1927, Stalin and his followers got ready to launch the ‘revolution from above’
Stalin and the Nationalities Question
Lenin had advocated for the self-determination of the multiethnic territories of the Russian empire
in contrast, while Stalin does not take over the cultures of the multiethnic Russian territories, they are granted no political autonomy
The Five-Year Plan
in 1928, Stalin launched the Five-Year Plan, marking the end of the NEP
Stalin had several reasons for launching this:
Stalin and his supporters were fiercely committed Communists; they wanted to abolish the NEP because of its capitalist use
in 1927-1928, the growth of the fragile economy stalled, and Stalin’s government felt that they needed a new tactic to promote growth
Stalin wanted to overcome traditional Russian ‘backwardness’ and to catch up with the West
Communists also worried that the peasantry (who finally owned land after centuries of demanding it) would become enchanted with capitalism and revolt against communism
in 1929, Stalin ordered the collectivization of agriculture
Stalin focused his attacks on the kulaks, deporting many to forced-labor camps
the collectivization of agriculture was a disaster: many peasants burned crops or slaughtered livestock rather than turn it over to the state, and the output of state farms were hardly any greater than the output of private farms
collectivization in Ukraine was more focused/violent, as Stalin viewed the rebellionness of Ukrainians (who wanted to be free of Soviet rule) as unacceptable
Stalin set a high quota for agricultural output in Ukraine and refused to relax it even after receiving reports that Ukrainians were starving
the resulting man-made famine in Ukraine claimed over 3 million lives
collectivization was a victory for Stalinists, though they had to make small concessions, like allowing peasants to cultivate some of their own food on tiny plots of family land
the industrialization of Russia was largely successful
prioritzing industry over consumer goods led to a shortage of necessities in Russia
however, the country quadrupled output between 1928 and 1937
steel was needed in the U.S.S.R. to support the heavy machinery necessary for rapid development
peasants were moved about with an internal passport system: they could only move about if allowed, and they were not given a choice in moving
though the new workers often experienced deplorable conditions, they were given opportunities at education and new jobs, increasing their enthusiasm (somewhat) for the new Soviet state
Life and Culture in the Soviet Society
there was major overcrowding in the cities, as peasants were forced to move there, but more housing was not constructed
workers’ wages could only buy a fraction of what they’d previously been able to buy under Lenin’s government
citizens were proud to be building the ‘first socialist society’
employment was almost unknown in the U.S.S.R.
breaking from the egalitarian policies of the 1920s, the elite of Russian skilled managerial and technical workers were able to join the ranks of the upper classes
though women received many rights under Lenin, many rights were revoked under Stalin
women were still allowed some higher education and dominated the field of medicine
because it was nigh-impossible to live only on the husband’s salary, many women had to take difficult labor jobs to support the household
men were given the very best jobs
Russians were constantly fed political propaganda
farmworkers and factory workers were often lectured by political activists
the Russian government encouraged creatives to combine their creativity with propaganda that glorified the Russian state and the life of an everyday Russian worker
though Stalin seldom appeared in public, his image was everywhere
religion is banned, and the state turns practically worshipping Marxism-Leninism and Joseph Stalin
Stalinist Terror and the Great Purges
Stalin likely murdered Sergei Kirov, a high-standing Soviet official, to use his ‘mysterious’ murder as a reason for pursuing/executing ‘enemies of the state’
Stalin gathered many (mostly innocent) people, gathered (false) confessions under torture, and executed them
this culminated in the Great Purge of 1936-1938
this often baffles historians, as Stalin went after mainly the innocent
however, some suggest that a characteristic of the totalitarian state is always fighting an enemy, whether real or imagined
either way: this sent the message that all Russians needed to serve the state with redoubled devotion
as it turns out: Stalin’s government worried about the dissent that might form if they didn’t go through with the Great Purges
the terror instilled by the Purges inspired mass hysteria, and millions more Russian lives were claimed in the ensuing witch-hunt
though the Purges set the U.S.S.R. back militarily, economically, and intellectually; the Purges left Stalin in greater control of the Russian state
many joined the Communist party, and the generations to come would advance Communist agendas
What kind of government did Mussolini establish in Italy?
it was Mussolini’s followers that began calling themselves ‘Fascists’
The Seizure of Power
at the beginning of the 20th century, Italy was a liberal democratic country
however:
Catholics and conservatives strongly opposed liberal institutions
bonds between the state and church were tense
poverty was rampant in Italy
Italians covet personal/local interests over national interest
due to extreme class difference, a major socialist movement was developing in Italy
World War I exacerbated the issue:
the Italian government delivered on neither the territorial expansion nor land reform it promised
angry Italian Socialist Party followed the Bolshevik example, seizing land and factories
the pope lifted his ban on Catholic involvement in Italian politics, and a new Catholic party emerged
many political groups fought for their own interests, but none of them liked the current liberal government
Mussolini had been a Socialist Party leader, but was kicked out of the Party in 1914 after he suggested the Italy join the Allies
Mussolini returned home a bitter, injured veteran in 1917 and organized a group of similar people called Fascists
at first, his Fascist party combined socialist and nationalist ideas
since this put him in direct competition with the Italian Socialist Party, the party failed
attacks on the Socialist Party gained many supporters for Mussolini, so he switched gears and just became anti-socialist instead
Mussolini and his Black Shirts drive Socialists out of northern Italian governments
Fascism quickly became a mass movement, one that Mussolini claimed would “help the little people”
Mussolini wins the support of army leaders and marches on Rome in 1922 to demand the resignation of Italian king Victor Emmanuel III (r. 1900-1922)
Emmanuel stepped down and asked Mussolini to form a new cabinet
Fascist Regime in Action
Mussolini moved cautiously in the first two years of his reign
fooled by his apparent moderation, the Italian parliament passed a law that stated that the party with the most votes in an election would have make up two-thirds of the representation of parliament
Mussolini’s group won overwhelmingly in the April 1924 votes, giving them great legislative power
after Fascist extremists murdered leading Socialist politician Giacomo Matteotti, some in parliament called for Mussolini to disband his group
Mussolini took advantage of the ensuing chaos to declare his desire for a Fascist Italy and instate repressive measures in Italy
by 1926, Italy is a one-party dictatorship under Mussolini
Mussolini wins broad support from the traditional elites because he was willing to compromise with them
because of this compromise, he never gets his fully totalitarian state
Mussolini agrees to the Lateran Agreement to win the support of the Pope
Mussolini wins popular support for Fascism and his government:
he promotes social welfare
he casts himself as the embodiment of the best of Italy
he acted like Fascism was simply the revival of the great Roman Empire
like other Fascist regimes, his rule promoted traditional gender roles
to establish the ‘Italian empire,’ Mussolini invaded and conquered Ethiopia in 1936
by 1937, close ties formed between Italy and Nazi Germany
influenced by Hitler’s ideas, Italy also passes anti-Semitic laws
extreme persecution of Jews does not occur until late in WWII, when Italy is under Nazi control
though influenced by Hitler, Mussolini is never quite as ruthless
What policies did Nazi Germany pursue, and why did they appeal to ordinary Germans?
German National Socialism (Nazism) had some things in common with Italian fascism, but was far more interventionist
The Roots of National Socialism
Hitler was a mediocre student who dropped out of high school at 14, moved to Vienna, and was heavily influenced by Social Darwinism and anti-Semiticism
to many, these ideas were given more credence by supporting ‘scientific’ views and eugenics
Hitler loved Germany and served proudly in WWI
when Germany lost, he felt shocked and betrayed, blaming Germany’s loss on Jews and Marxists
he joined a radical party called the German Workers’ Party in 1919 and headed the party by 1921
this group hated democrats, Jews, Marxists
they claimed they would free Germany from the evils of capitalism
Hitler was a passionate speaker, and his speeches stirred German crowds who were facing the crises left by WWI
despite the failure of the Beer Hall Putsch, National Socialism was born
Hitler’s Road to Power
at his trial, Hitler publicly denounced the Weimar Republic (current democratic government of Germany), which brought him a lot of publicity
he used his brief prison stay to write Mein Kampf
Hitler realized he had to come to power through electoral means
between 1924 and 1929, Hitler built up the Nazi Party, focusing on the anti-Communist element to appeal to voters; the Nazis won only 2.6% of the vote
after the Great Depression of 1929, Hitler promised economic salvation to German voters
voters, desperate for better economic conditions, voted for the Nazis
the Nazi Party made up 38% of the Reichstag by 1932
several factors contributed to the Nazi rise to power:
the conservative policies of Chancellor Heinrich contributed to German economic struggle, convinced them that their republican leaders were stupid
the two leftist parties (Social Democrats and Communists) could not rectify and mount a powerful opposition to the Nazi Party
Hitler was a skilled manipulator; he was given power because he gave the impression that he could be easily controlled
State and Society in Nazi Germany
Hitler worked quickly to establish a dictatorship
he called for new elections in 1933, and when he blamed Communists for the (Nazi-caused) violence of the campaigns, he convinced President Hindenburg to sign an agreement revoking many German personal liberties
the facade of democracy fell apart when the Nazis only gained 44% of the vote in 1933, as Hitler outlawed the Communist Party and arrested Communists
the Nazis push the Enabling Act through the Reichstag before an opposition can be mounted
Germany becomes a one-party state
the Nazi government is inefficient and full of rivalries: however, this suits Hitler, since it fosters competition among government personnel, who compete to do the best for Hitler
the Nazis eliminated political opponents and outlawed labor strikes
the Nazi storm troopers (also called the SA; they attacked Communists and Jews before the Nazi rise to power) now expected top positions in the army
however, Hitler favored gaining the support of the traditional army, and he had his elite personal guard (SS) assassinate the leaders of the SA
the leader of the SS, Heinrich Himmler, took over the concentration camp system
Nazi ideology swallowed all organizations, books were burned, and modern art was banned
the Nazis campaigned against anyone who they felt did not contribute to the ‘master race:’ Jews, Roma, Slavs, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses, the disabled, the outcasts, etc.
the state did everything to justify and normalize ‘racial hygiene,’ from children’s board games to seemingly ‘enlightened’ scientific studies on the superiority of the Aryan race
racial outsiders faced brutal repression and were denied welfare benefits or put out of work
the Nazis forcibly sterilized over 400,000 Germans and euthanized over 70,000
the most hate was toward German Jews, and much German propagnda was geared toward stigmatizing German Jews
German Jews were dismissed from their jobs
the Nuremburg Laws are one of the greatest examples of oppression that Jews faced
Kristallnacht was one of the biggest examples of Jewish repression
by 1939, ⅗ of Germany’s Jewish population had abandoned everything and fled
many Germans said nothing about Jewish treatment or looked the other way, revealing widespread support for Hitler’s government
Popular Support for National Socialism
for the members of Hitler’s so-called ‘master race,’ a huge benefit could be derived from his reform of Germany
Hitler delivered on the economic recovery he had promised
his upgrades of German public works provided employment for almost all Germans
the standard of living and business profits increased
as Jews were forced from their homes and businesses, Germans stepped up to take the places they left behind in a process called Aryanization
the Nazis sought to build Volksgemeinschaft through groups like the Hitler Youth, the League of German Women, etc.
public celebrations also helped to foster community
the state also advertised cheap goods for the people (like the Volkswagen)
those these programs falter when WWII approaches, they make Germans feel that the regime is working to improve their living standards
the Nazi regime sought to ‘liberate women from women’s liberation’
they were a proponent of women in their traditional roles
in the 1930s, in the face of labor shortages, the Nazis had to reluctantly allow women to work
many public organizations and charities were available so that women could feel a sense of freedom in participating in Hitler’s regime
Hitler’s government played up their achievements, and Hitler remained popular well into WWII
not everyone supported Hitler, but his dissenters were divided and could not mount a unified opposition
additionally, the government clamped down hard on dissenters, imprisoning and executing thousands
opposition rose in Protestant and Catholic Churches, but they mainly focused on keeping religion, not overthrowing Hitler
Aggression and Appeasement
at first, Hitler made it seem like he had peaceful intentions
in March 1935, he declared he would no longer agree to the disarmament outlined in the Treaty of Versailles and began drafting people into the German army
Britain and France warn against further action but quickly adopt a policy of appeasement to avoid war
Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles when he marched into the Rhineland in 1936
Britain refused to act, and without British support, there was little France could do
emboldened by Britain’s lack of action, Hitler joined forces with Italy and Japan to form the Axis alliance
Germany and Italy interfered with the Spanish Civil War by helping the revolutionary Fascist side of things
Hitler decides to take Austria and Czechslovakia:
he threatens Austria with invasion, and the Nazis are allowed to take over Austrian government
Austria is annexed and becomes a part of Greater Germany
Czechslovakia allied with France and the Soviet Union to defend itself
again following appeasement policy, the British gave the German part of Czechslovakia to Germany, and France went with it
Hitler then invaded rest of Czechslovakia (which was not mainly German), and he had no ethnic rationale for it
the Prime Minister of Britain threatened war if Hitler marched on Poland, but Hitler did not take him seriously
in a shocking turn of events, sworn enemies Hitler and Stalin signed a nonaggression pact
the two agreed to divide up territories like Poland, Finland, Romania
German planes bombed Poland on September 1, 1939
Britain and France declared war on Germany on September 3, 1939
What explains the success and then defeat of Germany and Japan during World War II?
Germany and Japan overran Europe and Asia in the war
their aggression unified several unlikely allies: Britain, the U.S., the U.S.S.R.
German Victories in Europe
Germany led a ‘lightning war’ in Poland and conquered it in 4 weeks
they occupied Denmark, Norway, and Holland
German troops crashed through France, trapping British forces on the beach of Dunkirk
Britain managed to save its troops, though its equipment was lost
in July 1940, Hitler practically ruled continental Europe:
Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, and Hungary were allies
Spain, Sweden, and Russia were friendly neutrals
only Britain and the Balkans held out
Hitler attempted an amphibious invasion to take over Britain in July 1940, starting the Battle of Britain
both sides had heavy losses
Hitler’s forces were beat back by the skilled British air force, who were being encouraged by Winston Churchill
since Hitler couldn’t win the Battle of Britain, he invaded the Balkans and Greece instead
Hitler turned on the U.S.S.R. and attempted to invade, but was beat back by the cold Russian winter
Europe Under Nazi Occupation
Hitler’s New Order dictated how people were treated
Nordic peoples were given preferential treatment because Hitler believes they are related to the Aryans
most Nordic people hated the Nazis, but some supporters were placed in charge of the Nordic countries
in France, World War I general Marshal Henri-Philippe Petain formed an independent government in southern France that willingly gave French Jews to the Nazis
occupied peoples had to pay for the Nazis and their occupations
the Nazis essentially plunder occupied nations and send goods home, keeping home-front morale up for quite a ways into the war
Nazi victory in Europe placed many Jews under Nazi regime and therefore left them vunerable to the Nazis
in eastern and central Europe, the goal was to exterminate Jews, and then to enslave Poles, Ukranians, and Russians until those populations died out
in the east, the Nazis killed millions of people
the rebellions that emerged were divided, and many dissenting groups attacked both the Nazis and one another
the Polish, who spent the longest under Nazi control, had the most unified rebellion
members of the Polish Home Army maintained an underground press and sent intel to the Allied powers
groups in France, Italy, Greece, Russia, the Netherlands followed suit
the Nazis tortured and executed any resistance member they found
the Nazis exterminated the male populations of two towns and leveled the towns to stop rebellion
however hard they tried, the Nazis could not stamp out popular resistance to their rule
The Holocaust
the Nazis took information gathered during the euthanasia campaign and applied it to concentration camps
about 3 million Jews lived in Poland when it was invaded; they were forced to move to the deplorable conditions of the ghettos, where 500,000 Jews died
when Hitler invaded the U.S.S.R., the Nazis moved through towns and shot the target populations
they were often forced to dig their own graves before they were murdered
in 1941, Germany utilized a vast system of railroads and concentration camps to murder the Jews that survived the ghettos
some Jews were able to masquerade as Christian or flee to rural areas
some revolted, like in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising or the burning of a crematorium in Auschwitz
by 1945, 6 million Jews and 5 million Europeans had been killed under the Nazi flag
historians argue about who is to blame for the deaths:
some say Hitler and his Nazi leadership shared all the blame; that either Germans didn’t know what was really happening, or that they were forced to comply
others say that Germans were indifferent at best to the mass murder of Jews
either way, Nazi propaganda played a role
Japanese Empire and the War in the Pacific
like its Western counterparts, Japan preached nationalism
Japan claimed that Asian races were far superior to Western ones, so it was the Japanese duty to liberate East Asia from Western influence
from 1931-1941, Japan invaded Manchuria, China, and Indochina (Cambodia and Vietnam)
Japan allied wth Italy and Germany in 1940
Japan took over much of East Asia, citing that they would create a ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’ and take back “Asia for Asians”
this Co-Prosperity Sphere was a sham, as the Japanese held all the power and exploited nations as they saw fit
however, the way they threw off Western influence inspired decolonization movements after WWII
the sharp American response to Japanese expansion led to the Japanese belief that war with America was inevitable
on December 7, 1941, the Japanese launched a surprise Attack on Pearl Harbor
though all American battleships were crippled/destroyed, the aircraft carriers luckily were out at sea
Pearl Harbor stirred American rage, and and American-Australian alliance launched a successful island-hopping campaign
this campaign was beyond brutal on both sides
The Grand Alliance and the “Hinge of Fate”
the Grand Alliance was an unlikely pairing:
isolationist America would have stayed out if not for Pearl Harbor
Britain and America were enemies of the Soviet Union
however, the goal of defeating the Axis powers united them
the Allies agreed to focus on Europe first and work out peace settlements later
every Ally provided a great advantage:
the United States outproduced the entire world
Britain had a great frontline area for launching an attack on Germany
the Russian army had great military power
in what Winston Churchill called the “hinge of fate,” the Second Battle of El Alamein paved the way for Allied victory
this stopped the Axis powers from gaining Northern Africa
the invaded Sicily in 1943, and Mussolini was overthrown in a coup
the new government agreed to a full surrender
Mussolini was rescued by Axis powers and placed in a puppet government
while German submarine power had initially favored the Axis powers, new antisubmarine tech now favored the Allies
the German air force had never recovered from the Battle of Britain, and British/American air raids in Germany decimated cities
Germany launched an initially successful campaign into Russia, but it soured and they were defeated at the Battle of Stalingrad after Hitler refused to retreat
Allied Victory
though the Axis powers were clearly going to lose, the war still continued, and Germany tripled war production
despite growing German dissent and a failed assassination of Hitler, the repression by Nazis in Germany grew
Germans fought on with an almost-suicidal resolve
the Battle of Normandy marked the beginning of the liberation of Europe
in 1945, the Axis powers were forced out of Italy; Mussolini was executed
the Polish Home Army ordered an uprising in Warsaw, hoping that if the Poles took the city on their own, the might free themselves from Soviet rule
the ensuing Warsaw Uprising was a disaster for the Poles
the Allies had Germany mostly surrounded in 1945, and when Hitler knew he had nowhere left to go, he committed suicide on May 8
the war in the Pacific continued, and Japanese forces fought as hard as ever
to end the war in the Pacific, American forces made the decision to drop two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki
the Japanese announced their surrender on August 14, 1945
this ended WWII at a death toll of over 50 million
Evidence
appeasement: a diplomatic strategy that involves giving into an aggressive nation to avoid war
Aryanization 1933-1945: Jewish property was transferred to non-Jews under the Nazi regime in Germany
Attack on Pearl Harbor December 7, 1941: the Japanese launched a surprise attack on the American naval base Pearl Harbor
Battle of Britain 1940: a battle where Britain defended itself from German air raids
Battle of Normandy 1944: Allied forces landed on Normandy’s beach and pierced through German lines and pushed inland
Battle of Stalingrad 1942-1943: the Russians stopped the German advance into the Soviet Union, and German forces were decimated by the Russian winter
Beer Hall Putsch 1923: a failed uprising staged by Adolf Hitler and the Nazis
Black Shirts 1919-1943: Benito Mussolini’s private Fascist militia of men that attacked/destroyed socialist organizations
collectivization of agriculture: the forcible consolidation of privately-owned farms into national property
Enabling Act 1933: an act that the Nazis pushed through the German Reichstag to give Hitler dictatorial power for four years
eugenics: the idea that selective breeding in humans can improve the overall national characteristics of a nation
fascism: a type of government characterized by extreme nationalism, glorification of the military, a violent leader, and anti-socialist sentiment
Five-Year Plan 1928-1933: Stalin instated this to increase agricultural and industrial output in Russia
German National Socialism (Nazism) 1933-1945: the predominant movement and political party that was driven by extreme racism and nationalism; led by Adolf Hitler
Great Purge of 1936-1938: millions of Russians were executed or sent to labor camps under false accusations of guilt
Holocaust 1933-1945: the systemic murder of 6 million Jews, ethnic minorities, homosexuals, and the disabled in Nazi Germany under Hitler’s regime
Kristallnacht 1938: a well-organized Nazi attack on German Jews; thousands of stores were looted, synagogues were burned, German Jews were killed, and German Jewish people were forced to pay the damages
kulaks: the better-off peasants who were stripped of their property under Stalin’s regime
Lateran Agreement 1929: an agreement between the Vatican and Italy to establish Vatican City as a sovereign nation
Mein Kampf 1925: (translation: My Struggle) this book outlined Adolf Hitler’s ideas about racial purification for Germany, as he claimed that Germans were the ‘master race’ and that they needed to defend their ‘pure blood’ from ‘racial degenerates’
New Economic Policy (NEP) 1921-1928: a Russian policy under Lenin that re-established limited economic freedom in an attempt to rebuild agriculture and industry after the destruction of the Russian Civil War
New Order 1933-1945: Hitler’s racist system that preferred Nordic people, saw Latin people as inferior, and Slavs/Jews as subhuman
Nuremburg Laws 1935: a series of laws in Germany that defined what it meant to be Jewish, stripped Jews of citizenship, and forbade Jewish-German relationships
Second Battle of El Alamein 1942: in what was called the “hinge of fate,” this British victory over German-Italian forces paved the way for eventual Allied victory
Spanish Civil War 1936-1939: Francisco Franco’s revolutionary Fascist movement overthrew the Spanish republican government
Stalinism 1922-1953: the name given to the Communist system in Russia under Stalin’s rule
totalitarianism: a radical dictatorship that takes over all aspects of its citizens’ lives
Volksgemeinschaft 1933-1945: (German for ‘people’s community,’ ‘racial community’) this was the Nazis building a community of pure Aryans in Germany
War Communism 1918-1921: the political system utilized by the Reds in the Russian Civil War that nationalized banks and industry, banned private enterprise, and maintained strict workplace discipline
Warsaw Uprising 1944: the Polish Home Army revolted against German and Soviet rule, but was crushed by the Germans
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 1943: when Jews in the Warsaw Ghetto found out that they were going to be sent to the Treblinka concentration camp, they opened fire on German troops but were eventually killed