Social Psychology: Perception and Cognition

Social Psychology: Perception and Cognition

Definition of Social Psychology

• Social psychology is the study of the ways people influence and are influenced by each other.

• Key topics studied by social psychologists include:

  • Perceptions

  • Attitudes and persuasion

  • Almost all behaviors of relatively normal people in their relationships with others

Social Perception and Cognition

• Social perception and cognition describe the processes involved in:

  • Collecting information about others

  • Making inferences and judgments based on that information

Attribution Theory

Overview

• Attribution refers to the set of thought processes we use to assign causes to others’ behavior and to our own.

• Attributions can be classified into two categories:

  • Internal attributions (dispositional): Ascribing behavior to internal factors such as personality, character, or disposition.

  • External attributions (situational): Ascribing behavior to external factors such as the environment, circumstances, or situational constraints.

Kelley’s Model of Attribution

• Kelley proposed that we utilize three sources of information to make internal or external attributions:

  • Consensus information: How others behave in similar situations.

  • Consistency information: How the person behaves over time in the same situation.

  • Distinctiveness: How the person behaves in different situations.

Fundamental Attribution Error

• The Fundamental Attribution Error is the tendency to make dispositional attributions for others’ behavior while overlooking possible external influences.

  • Also termed as correspondence bias.

• Conversely, when making attributions for our own behavior, we often exhibit a different bias known as the actor-observer effect.

Using Attributions to Control Perceptions of Ourselves

Self-Serving Biases

• Self-serving biases help us maintain a positive self-image, allowing us to attribute successes to ourselves while blaming failures on external factors.

Self-Handicapping Strategies

• Self-handicapping strategies provide individuals with ready “excuses” for poor performance, thus protecting their self-esteem.

Attitudes and Persuasion

Definition of Persuasion

• Persuasion is any attempt to change someone’s attitudes or behavior.

Routes to Persuasion

• Social psychologists distinguish between two main routes to persuasion:

  • Central Route to Persuasion: Involves careful and thoughtful consideration of the content of the message.

  • Peripheral Route to Persuasion: Involves more superficial cues such as the attractiveness of the speaker or emotional appeals.

Audience Variables that Affect Persuasion

• Factors that can affect the effectiveness of persuasive messages include:

  • Personal relevance: The degree to which the audience feels the message directly impacts them.

  • Cognitive ability (intelligence): The audience’s ability to process the information being presented.

  • Mood: The emotional state of the audience can influence their receptiveness to persuasion.

Common Persuasive Techniques

• To know and resist common persuasive techniques:

  • Foot in the door: Starting with a small request to gain eventual compliance with a larger request.

  • Door in the face: Making a large request that is likely to be refused, followed by a smaller, more reasonable request.

  • Bait and switch: Advertised deals that lure customers in but switch to something less favorable.

  • That’s not all!: Enhancing an offer by adding bonuses or benefits before the decision is made.

Other Persuasive Techniques

• Additional techniques that are important to recognize include:

  • Perceived similarity: The audience's perception of how similar they are to the speaker.

  • Group endorsement: The influence of group acceptance or endorsement on an individual.

  • Fear: Using fear appeals to motivate behavior or attitudes.

Effects Related to Persuasive Messages

Resistance to Persuasive Messages

• Resistance mechanisms include:

  • Forewarning Effect: Prior knowledge of persuasive attempts allows individuals to mentally prepare and resist the message.

  • Inoculation Effect: Exposure to a weak version of an argument builds resilience against stronger persuasive messages.

Delayed Influence of Persuasive Messages

• Effects that manifest over time include:

  • The Sleeper Effect: Over time, individuals may begin to accept a previously rejected message if its source is perceived as credible.

  • Minority Influence: Small groups can influence majority beliefs over time by consistently presenting their views.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Overview

• Cognitive dissonance refers to an aversive (unpleasant) state occurring when individuals realize their behavior is inconsistent with their expressed attitudes.

• This discomfort often motivates individuals to change their attitudes to align with their behavior.

Significance

• Cognitive dissonance plays a crucial role in self-regulation and self-change as it prompts individuals to resolve the inconsistency between their beliefs and actions.

Empirical Evidence

• Cognitive dissonance theory is supported by data such as that from Festinger & Carlsmith (1959), which explored the relationship between attitudes and behavior and the resulting cognitive dissonance.