Lecture 22: The World of Imperial Rome - The Year of the Four Emperors and the Rise of the Flavian Dynasty

The Decline of Nero and the Influence of Agrippina the Younger

• Nero ascended to power primarily through the strategic maneuverings and influence of his mother, Agrippina the Younger.
• Agrippina the Younger was a prominent and powerful woman who manipulated the political landscape to ensure Nero was adopted by the Emperor Claudius, despite Claudius having his own biological children.
• Upon the death of Claudius, Nero became Emperor at the age of $17$.
• Due to his youth, Nero relied on a core group of advisers established by Agrippina:
  • Burrus: The Praetorian prefect, responsible for military and security matters.
  • Seneca: Nero’s tutor and a prominent philosopher.
  • Agrippina herself: Provided guidance and maneuvered to secure Nero's position in the early years of his reign.
• The initial years of Nero's reign are generally well-regarded by historical sources, categorized by stability and effective cooperation among his advisers.
• Conflict eventually arose as Agrippina sought more influence than Seneca and Burrus were comfortable with; the advisers actively attempted to incite personal conflict between Nero and his mother to diminish her power.
• By $58\,CE$, Nero began a relationship with Poppaea Sabina, which further strained relations with Agrippina. Poppaea was linked to Otho, one of Nero’s drinking companions, who was deliberately sent away on a provincial posting to facilitate Nero’s affair.
• Agrippina objected to the relationship, as Nero was already married to Octavia (the daughter of Claudius from a previous marriage). Agrippina's inability to stop this affair signaled the irreversible reduction of her political influence.

Nero's Obsession with the Arts and the Decline of Roman Governance

• The stability of Nero's reign disintegrated rapidly after $62\,CE$:
  • Burrus died in $62\,CE$, removing a stabilizing military influence.
  • Seneca, recognizing the futility of managing Nero alone, retired from public life.
  • Nero divorced Octavia and married Poppaea Sabina in $62\,CE$.
  • A new set of advisers, primarily friends rather than statesmen, encouraged a decline into debauchery and extravagent partying.
• Nero arranged the assassination of his mother, Agrippina, prior to this period of total decline.
• Nero became increasingly preoccupied with the arts (music, acting, and horse racing) at the expense of political and military administration.
• In $65\,CE$, Nero performed on a public stage, an act considered disgraceful and scandalous for a high-ranking Roman. He encouraged other senators and members of the equestrian class to follow suit.
• Between $67$ and $68\,CE$, Nero conducted a tour of Greece, competing in and winning various festivals and horse races. Historical accounts suggest he was sometimes declared the winner even in events where he did not actually participate.

The Great Fire of Rome ($64\,CE$) and its Consequences

• In $64\,CE$, a massive fire swept through Rome, burning for over a week and destroying some of the city's most densely populated quarters.
• While Nero instituted relief for the homeless and created building regulations to prevent future fires (such as fire breaks), he simultaneously seized a large tract of land in central Rome to construct a luxurious palace and gardens.
• This seizure of land led to accusations that Nero had deliberately set the fire himself. Stories circulated of him performing and singing while the city burned.
• To shift the blame, Nero used the newly formed Christian community as a scapegoat, rounding up, torturing, and executing several members.
• Despite these efforts, public suspicion remained fixed on Nero.
• In the final years of his reign, Nero spent significant time outside of Rome performing. Consequently, the state suffered: military pay fell into arrears, and provinces began to rebel.
• In $67\,CE$, Nero sent Flavius Vespasianus (Vespasian) to Judea to suppress a rebellion. Vespasian was chosen because he was a capable general but was not considered a political threat due to his lack of illustrious lineage.
• Nero’s rule ended when the elite and military rejected him; he fled and was eventually killed in $68\,CE$.

The Year of the Four Emperors ($69\,CE$): Galba and Otho

• Following Nero's death, $69\,CE$ became a year of immense turmoil known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
• Galba succeeded Nero in $68\,CE$. He was chosen largely because he was $70$ years old and childless, serving as a "stop-gap" while the Senate determined a long-term successor.
• Otho, Nero’s former companion, expected to be named successor. When Galba instead adopted an unknown senator named Piso, Otho turned to the Praetorian Guard.
• The Praetorian Guard had not received a promised bounty from Galba; Otho promised them more cash to secure their loyalty.
• On $January\,15,\,69\,CE$, Otho arranged the assassination of both Galba and Piso. Otho became the first Roman emperor to take power by assassinating his predecessor.

The Rise of Vitellius and the Conflict in Northern Italy

• Otho’s position was immediately challenged by Vitellius, who had been proclaimed emperor by the Roman armies stationed along the Rhine.
• Otho attempted to negotiate with Vitellius, offering a share in imperial dignity and a marriage alliance, but Vitellius refused.
• The resulting civil war led to the First Battle of Bedriacum (or Cremona) on $April\,14,\,69\,CE$.
• Approximately $40,000$ soldiers were reported killed in the bloody engagement. Otho survived the battle but ultimately committed suicide, leaving the path to Rome open for Vitellius.

The Flavian Bid for Power: Vespasian and the Eastern Legions

• While Vitellius moved toward Rome, a new threat emerged from the eastern provinces.
• On $July\,1,\,69\,CE$, Tiberius Julius Alexander, the prefect of Egypt, administered an oath of loyalty to the Egyptian legions in the name of Vespasian.
• By $July\,3,\,69\,CE$, legions in Judea and Syria joined the movement. Syria was a powerful province with a massive military presence.
• Mucianus, the governor of Syria and a highly capable individual, chose to support Vespasian rather than making a bid for power himself.
• Vespasian sent Mucianus west toward Italy with an army while he remained in Egypt to secure the grain supply and imperial wealth as leverage.

The Fall of Vitellius and the Destruction of Cremona

• Legions on the Danube also rebelled against Vitellius, marching on Rome under the command of Antonius Primus.
• The two forces clashed at the Second Battle of Cremona. The Vitellian forces were routed, and the Flavian supporters utterly destroyed the town of Cremona.
• Approximately $40,000$ armed men plus a larger body of camp followers ransacked, looted, and destroyed the town in a brutal display of violence.
• Vitellius attempted to abdicate in favor of Vespasian, but his supporters forced him to stay and defend the Capitoline Hill.
• The ensuing street fighting in Rome resulted in high casualties and the death of many senators. The Vitellians were eventually defeated; Vitellius was captured and executed, leaving Vespasian as the sole ruler.

The Reign of Vespasian ($69-79\,CE$): Consolidation and Fiscal Reform

• Vespasian’s first act was to sack the existing Praetorian Guard and replace them with a handpicked unit of loyal soldiers.
• He stabilized the empire by founding military colonies for discharged soldiers, placing loyalists in strategic locations across the provinces.
• In $70\,CE$, his son Titus successfully took Jerusalem and destroyed the Temple, effectively ending the Judean revolt from the Roman perspective.
• The Senate passed the Lex de Imperio Vespasiani, a constitutional document that explicitly laid out Vespasian’s powers. While the Senate legitimized his rule, Vespasian had secured his power through military force.
• Vespasian was praised for his financial management, as Nero’s extravagances and the civil wars had left the treasury empty.
• He introduced various taxes to raise revenue, including:
  • Doubling tributes in some areas.
  • Reclaiming state land taken by squatters and collecting rent.
  • Taxing urine collected from public urinals, which was used by fullers for laundry bleaching.
• The urine collection system involved pots placed in doorways and buildings; once full, these were collected. Because the pots were often porous, the process was known for being messy and malodorous.

Vespasian's Public Works and the Succession of Titus

• Vespasian used his funds to rebuild roads and repair frontier defenses damaged in the civil wars. Most notably, he began the construction of the Colosseum in Rome.
• He held the consulship frequently to build connections with the Senate and introduced his eldest son, Titus, into the administration.
• Titus was made Praetorian Prefect—a role usually reserved for the equestrian class—to ensure loyalty and groom him for succession.
• Vespasian died in $79\,CE$. Known for his down-to-earth personality and humor, his reported final words were, "I think I'm now becoming a god."

The Reign of Titus ($79-81\,CE$): Disasters and Public Image

• Titus was highly popular, described by Suetonius as "the darling and delight of mankind."
• His brief two-year reign was marked by efficient administration and an absence of executions or treason trials.
• Two major disasters occurred during his reign:
  • The eruption of Vesuvius ($79\,CE$): Destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum. Titus provided significant support to the survivors.
  • The Great Fire of $80\,CE$: Another major fire followed by a plague, both of which Titus managed with public praise.
• Titus had poor health and died on $September\,13,\,81\,CE$. He had no sons and had not shared power with his brother, Domitian, as Vespasian had done with him.

The Reign of Domitian ($81-96\,CE$): Paranoia and External Hostility

• Domitian became Emperor with the support of the Praetorian Guard and the wider military, largely due to the Flavian name.
• He is condemned by historical sources (Tacitus, Pliny, Suetonius, and Juvenal) as a paranoid and hostile ruler.
• Although Tacitus' own career peaked under Domitian (becoming Consul), he and others portrayed Domitian as an isolated ruler who distanced himself from the Senate at his palace in Alba.
• Domitian's reign was characterized by:
  • Deep paranoia and the return of treason trials.
  • Using senators to attack one another to thrive on factional disputes.
  • Executing anyone suspected of opposition, including members of his own family.
• Domitian maintained the loyalty of the military by significantly raising their pay and hosting extravagant shows for the public.
• By $93\,CE$, his relationship with the Senate had completely collapsed. He was eventually assassinated in $96\,CE$ as part of a household conspiracy involving staff and potentially senators.

Questions & Discussion

• Closing Remarks: The lecturer noted the importance of the three actors that maintain an emperor's rule: the Praetorian Guard, the Senate, and the citizens of Rome (plebs), as well as the provincial armies. The next session will cover Roman social history and the relationship between Romans and Christians.