Lebanon History and Conflicts

Lebanon

• Ottoman Province (1516-1918)
• French Mandate until 1943

Confessional Geographic Distribution

The population is distributed geographically according to confessional lines:

• Key cities include Tyr, Beirut, Saida, Jbeil, and Tripoli.
• Confessions include Sunni, Shiite, Alawi, Druze, Greek Orthodox, Syriac Orthodox, Maronite, Greek Catholic, Latin (Roman Catholic), Evangelical, Assyrian, Armenian Orthodox, and Armenian Catholic.

Independence and the National Pact (1943)

• Independence: 1943
• National Pact: An agreement that shaped Lebanon's political structure:
  • Maronite Christians agreed not to seek foreign (Western) intervention and accepted an Arab-affiliated Lebanon.
  • Muslims abandoned aspirations to unite with Syria.
  • The President is always a Maronite Catholic.
  • The Prime Minister is always a Sunni Muslim.
  • The Speaker of Parliament is always a Shi'a Muslim.
  • The Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister are always Greek Orthodox Christian.
  • The Chief of the General Staff is always a Maronite Catholic.
  • The Chief of Army Staff is always Druze.
  • Parliamentary representation was set at a 6:5 ratio in favor of Christians to Muslims.

Early Challenges

• 1948: Arrival of Palestinian refugees.
• 1958 Lebanon Crisis:
  • Influence of the United Arab Republic and Gamal Nassar.
  • President Camille Chamoun resigned.
  • Major U.S. intervention occurred.
  • Religious tensions were heightened.
  • Fuad Chehab became the new President and a reformer. He had kept the Lebanese military out of the 1958 crisis and is considered the founder of the Lebanese military.

Tensions in the 1960s-70s

• Approximately 400,000 Palestinian refugees were present.
• 1967 Six-Day War: This war significantly changed the landscape of Lebanon.
  • Egypt and Syria suffered defeat, leading to the question of who would carry the torch of Arab nationalism.
• 1969 Cairo Agreement with Arafat: Granted free rein to the Palestinians in Lebanon.
  • Created a "state within a state" situation.
  • Allowed the PLO to possess weapons and engage in conflict with Israel.
  • Raises the question of whether the Lebanese Civil War would have occurred without the events of 1967.

Black September and its Aftermath

• 1970-1971: Black September in Jordan:
  • The PLO and Arafat were defeated and fled to Lebanon.
  • Shared agenda with aggravated Sunnis.
  • Resulted in an unusual coalition known as the Lebanese National Movement (LNM), which included Palestinians, Communists, Sunni Muslims, and those who generally disliked the established order.
  • The LNM was pro-PLO, Pan-Arab, and Socialist.
• 1975:
  • Former President Camille Chamoun's attempt to control fishing grounds led to protests and deaths.
  • The PLO took over parts of Lebanon, becoming larger than the Lebanese Army.
  • Low-level conflict occurred between Phalangists and the LNM, as both sides lacked faith in the state.

Escalation to Civil War

• Militias were formed on all sides.
• The conflict began as low-level violence between PLO-aligned groups and Maronite groups.
  • Phalange: Maronite militias.
  • Lebanese National Movement: broad anti-Maronite coalition, left-wing.
• The weak Lebanese military remained uninvolved.
• Open battles broke out, becoming sectarian and resulting in massacres in Beirut.
• Segregation occurred, marked by the Beirut Green Line:
  • East Beirut: Christian.
  • West Beirut: Muslim.

Massacres

• 1976: Karantina Massacre: 1,000 deaths.

Syrian Intervention

• Karantina massacre: 1,500 Muslims killed.
• Damour massacre 1976: 500 Christians killed.
• In June 1976, the Lebanese President invited the Syrians to intervene.
  • Hafez al-Assad (1971-2000).
  • Maronites were losing the battle.
  • Shia Muslims were largely disaffected.
  • Israel and Syria supported the Maronites (the official Government).
  • Victories for the Phalange.

Syria's Role

• 1976: The Arab League essentially put Syria in charge of restoring peace.
• Some peace was achieved.
• Approximately 60,000 people had been killed.
• The Lebanese Forces were formed from Christian parties headed by Pierre Gemayel and former President Camille Chamoun.
• The Lebanese National Movement was split by Assad.
• Things changed as the Syrians turned on the Maronites and began fighting (1977-78 Détente), revealing Syria’s true intentions.

Israeli Involvement

• Sporadic fighting continued in the South between the PLO and Israel.
• A Coastal Road massacre resulted in the deaths of 39 Israeli civilians, including children.
• Israel invaded Lebanon in 1978, aligning with the Maronites.
• Israel quickly withdrew but continued to act in Lebanon.
• After the Israeli Ambassador was almost killed in London in 1982, Israel invaded again more fully to punish the PLO.
• Drove Arafat out of Lebanon (to Tunisia).

Attempts at Peace and Further Conflict

• 1982 International Peacekeeping Mission:
  • US Marines were deployed to Lebanon.
  • The PLO was evacuated.
  • Bachir Gemayel was elected but assassinated one month after being elected President on Sept. 14, 1982.
  • The Sabra and Shatila massacre occurred in September 1982, resulting in the deaths of thousands of Muslims, many linked to the PLO.
  • His brother, Amine Gemayel, took office.
  • The 17 May Agreement 1983 was seen as giving in to Israel and only guaranteed Israeli evacuation of Beirut.

Attacks and Withdrawal

• In 1983, the American Embassy was bombed by Iranian-inspired militants, resulting in 17 American deaths.
• 1983 Beirut barracks: A suicide attack resulted in nearly 300 American deaths
• Reagan pulled U.S. troops out.
• Near collapse of the Lebanese military as Muslims and Druze left in droves.

Rise of Hezbollah

• The Amal Movement in the 1970s was meant to respond to PLO and Israeli invasions (acronym for Lebanese Resistance Regiments and means hope).
• The Movement of the Deprived.
• Musa al-Sadr (Until 1978).
• Strong support for/from Syria and Iran.
• Shia movement.
• Hezbollah grew out of this, and with crucial backing from the Iranians after 1979.