Russia and the Soviet Union, 1905-24: Student Guide Notes

TSARIST RULE IN RUSSIA, $1905$–$14$

• Tsar Nicholas II and the Principles of Autocracy     - In $1905$, Russia was ruled by the Romanov family, who had held power for nearly $300$ years.     - Nicholas Romanov (Nicholas II) became Tsar in $1894$ following the death of his father, Alexander III.     - Nicholas was the eldest son but was not prepared by his father for the demands of ruling a massive empire.     - Characteristics of Nicholas II: He was devoted to his family, described as weak, found decision-making difficult, lacked patience for detail, and had few strong political ideas of his own.     - Core belief: Nicholas felt a sacred duty to pass on absolute power to his son, Alexei (born $1904$), as his ancestors had.     - Definition of Autocrat: A ruler with absolute power over a country; no controls existed on the Tsar's power and no one could stop him from acting as he wished.     - Governance structure: The Tsar chose ministers from the aristocracy and senior Church leaders; he commanded the army and navy, who swore personal loyalty to him.     - Comparison to Britain: Unlike Britain where a government was elected and held accountable for failures, in Russia, criticizing the Tsar was seen as disloyalty or risked arrest.

• Reasons for Discontent in $1905$     - Peasants: Approximately $85\%$ of the population were peasants; they faced extreme poverty, were overtaxed, and hungry for land. Famines in the $1890s$ and $1901$ were poorly handled by the government; the word 'famine' was even banned from newspapers.     - Industrial Workers: Heavy industry grew in the $1890s$, concentrated in major cities. Workers faced dangerous conditions, long hours, low pay, and lived in overcrowded, dirty barracks where disease spread.     - Middle Classes: Mostly liberals who wanted a constitution and guaranteed rights but feared radical groups who wanted to share property among the poor.     - Nationalities: The Russian empire recorded $125$ million people in a $1897$ census; only $44\%$ were Russian by nationality. Policy of 'Russification' pressured non-Russians (like Poles and Ukrainians) to adopt Russian culture and language.     - Police State: The Okhrana (secret police) monitored suspects; censorship banned radical ideas; suspected revolutionaries were imprisoned or exiled to Siberia.

• Radical Revolutionary Groups     - Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs): Believed in destroying the government through violence; responsible for assassinating Alexander II in $1881$ and other ministers in the early $1900s$.     - Russian Social Democratic Party (RSDP): Formed in $1898$ based on Karl Marx's ideas. Divided into:         - Mensheviks: Believed Russia was not yet industrial enough for a workers' revolution.         - Bolsheviks: Led by Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin); believed in leading a workers' revolution as soon as possible.

THE $1905$ REVOLUTION: CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES

• Immediate Causes: The Russo-Japanese War ($1904$–$05$)     - Russia and Japan fought for control over Manchuria (northern China) due to its coal, silver, and ice-free ports.     - Russia expected an easy victory but suffered embarrassing defeats on land and sea.     - The Battle of Tsushima ($14$–$15$ May $1905$): Russia's Baltic Fleet traveled nearly $3,000\,km$ over $7$ months. They were crushed by the Japanese, losing all battleships and $5,000$ men.

• Bloody Sunday ($9$ January $1905$)     - A peaceful protest led by Father Gapon in St Petersburg aimed to deliver a petition signed by $150,000$ people to the Tsar.     - Demands: $8$-hour working day, right to organize trade unions, and a constitution.     - Soldiers and mounted Cossacks attacked the crowd. Over $100$ protesters were killed and hundreds wounded. The massacre united all classes in anger against the Tsar.

• Events of the $1905$ Revolution     - Potemkin Mutiny (June $1905$): Sailors of the battleship Potemkin mutinied over maggot-ridden meat and harsh discipline. Quartermaster Matyushenko (a socialist) led the takeover. The ship sailed to Odessa, where riots led to the army killing over $1,000$ citizens. The mutineers finally sank the ship in Romania to avoid recapture.     - Peasant Riots: Peasants burned down $3,000$ manor houses between $1905$ and $1907$, killing landlords and creating communes.     - Industrial Unrest: A general strike from $20$ September to $2$ October $1905$ shut down the railways.     - St Petersburg Soviet: Formed in October $1905$ to organize strikes; chaired by Lev Trotsky.

• The October Manifesto ($17$ October $1905$)     - Facing internal collapse, the Tsar granted new civil rights (freedom of speech, religion, and assembly), authorized the formation of political parties/trade unions, and created an elected parliament called the Duma.     - This satisfied the middle-class liberals but did nothing for workers or peasants.

• Tsarist Repression and Survival     - Pyotr Stolypin: Minister of the Interior and Prime Minister. He used extreme force to regain control. Special army courts executed over $1,000$ people between $1906$ and $1907$ (known as 'Stolypin's necktie'). Thousands were sent to Siberia in 'Stolypin's wagons'.     - Reasons for Survival: The military remained largely loyal (especially after the war with Japan ended); the opposition was disunited and lacked a single goal; the October Manifesto split the liberals from the radicals.

NICHOLAS II, THE DUMAS, AND STOLYPIN’S REFORMS

• The Fundamental Laws (April $1906$)     - Established the State Duma ($500$ elected delegates) and an upper house (Imperial State Council) that could block laws.     - The Tsar retained total authority over the military and foreign policy and had the right to veto legislation and dissolve the Duma at will.     - Under Article $87$, the Tsar could pass laws when the Duma was not in session.

• The First Four Dumas ($1906$–$1917$)     - First Duma (April–July $1906$): Dominated by Kadets and Trudoviks. Demanded radical land reform. Dissolved after $10$ weeks.     - Second Duma (Feb–June $1907$): Socialist groups (SRs and RSDP) participated. Dissolved quickly as Prime Minister Stolypin saw it as a threat.     - Third and Fourth Dumas ($1907$–$17$): Stolypin rigged election rules in June $1907$ to ensure more conservative deputies (Octobrists) were elected. These Dumas lasted their full terms but were criticized as dishonest 'rigged' parliaments.

• Stolypin’s Land Reform ('Wager on the Strong')     - Aimed to end peasant communes and create a class of individual, prosperous farmers who would support the Tsar.     - Encouraged migration to Siberia ($3.5$ million moved between $1905$ and $1917$).     - Success was limited: By May $1915$, only $14\%$ of peasants had combined their land into individual family farms; peasant unrest returned in $1917$.

• Lena Goldfields Strike ($1912$)     - Gold miners in Siberia protested rotten horsemeat. Troops fired on protesters, killing between $200$ and $500$ people.     - The incident restarted mass strike activity across Russia (nearly $2,000$ strikes followed).

THE IMPACT OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR ON RUSSIA

• Military Failures ($1914$–$15$)     - Initial patriotism faded after the Battle of Tannenburg (August $1914$), where $122,000$ men were lost ($30,000$ killed). The commander committed suicide.     - By the end of $1915$, Russia lost $2$ million men.     - Soldiers faced shortages of rifles (one-third had none), artillery shells, boots, and uniforms.

• The Tsar Takes Command (August $1915$)     - Nicholas II appointed himself commander-in-chief and moved to army headquarters ($800\,km$ from Petrograd). This meant he was directly blamed for military defeats.

• Economic and Social Effects     - Cost of War: $17$ billion roubles spent ($15\times$ more than the Russo-Japanese War).     - Inflation: Government printed money, causing prices to soar while wages stayed low.     - Labor Shortage: Out of $150$ million people, $15$ million men were sent to fight, leaving factories and fields empty.     - Food Shortages: Railways prioritized the army; food for cities rotted in wagons. Famines and rationing began.

• The Influence of Rasputin and Tsarina Alexandra     - While the Tsar was away, Alexandra acted as Regent. She was unpopular due to her German heritage and obsession with Grigori Rasputin, a mystic healing monk.     - Rasputin allegedly helped the Tsar's son Alexei, a haemophiliac. Alexandra took political and military advice from Rasputin, dismissing competent ministers for his 'friends'.     - Rasputin was murdered by aristocrats in December $1916$ to protect the dynasty's image.

THE FEBRUARY REVOLUTION AND THE ABDICATION OF THE TSAR

• The Trigger for Revolt ($1917$)     - $23$ February (International Women's Day): Women marched against bread shortages; they were joined by striking workers ($250,000$ people).     - $26$ February: Soldiers fired on protesters, killing $50$. This turned the crowd against the regime.     - Army Mutiny ($27$–$28$ February): Pavlovsky Regiment and others refused to fire on citizens. $150,000$ soldiers joined the protesters, seizing weapons and releasing political prisoners.

• The Abdication     - Nicholas II abdicated on $2$ March $1917$ at Pskov in favor of his brother, Grand Duke Michael. Michael refused the throne, ending $300$ years of Romanov rule.

• The Formation of Dual Control     - Provisional Government: Led by Prince Lvov; a temporary government supposed to rule until elections for a Constituent Assembly.     - Petrograd Soviet: Represented workers and soldiers. Issued Order Number $1$, stating that military orders from the Duma were only to be followed if they did not conflict with the Soviet's orders.

THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION OF OCTOBER $1917$

• Lenin's Return and the April Theses     - Lenin returned in April $1917$. He set out the April Theses, demanding the nationalization of land, an end to the war, and 'All Power to the Soviets'.     - Famous slogans: 'Peace, Land and Bread' and 'All Power to the Soviets!'.

• Failed Uprisings and the Kornilov Revolt     - July Days ($3$–$7$ July $1917$): Anarchists and Bolsheviks attempted to overthrow the government. It failed; the government claimed Lenin was a German agent. Lenin fled to Finland; Trotsky was arrested.     - Kornilov Revolt (August $1917$): General Kornilov marched on Petrograd to destroy the Soviets. Kerensky (now Prime Minister) released and armed the Red Guards ($40,000$ Bolshevik supporters) to save the city. This made Kerensky look weak and the Bolsheviks like heroes.

• The October Takeover     - $24$–$25$ October: Red Guards under Trotsky’s coordination took control of bridges, telegraph offices, and railway stations.     - $25$–$26$ October: Bolsheviks entered the Winter Palace and arrested the Provisional Government. Lenin formed Sovnarkom (Council of People's Commissars).

THE BOLSHEVIK CONSOLIDATION OF POWER AND THE CIVIL WAR

• Early Decrees and the Constituent Assembly     - Decree on Peace: Immediate armistice.     - Decree on Land: Abolished private land ownership; land given to peasants.     - Decree on Workers' Rights: $8$-hour day and insurance.     - Constituent Assembly: Elections in Nov $1917$ gave SRs $53\%$ and Bolsheviks only $24\%$. Lenin dissolved the Assembly after one day (Jan $5$, $1918$).     - The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March $1918$): Russia lost $74\%$ of coal mines, $50\%$ of industry, $27\%$ of farmland, and $26\%$ of its population ($62$ million people).

• The Russian Civil War ($1918$–$21$)     - The Reds: The Bolshevik Red Army, led by Trotsky. Disciplined and held central Russia (railways/industry).     - The Whites: Anti-Bolshevik forces led by Kolchak, Yudenich, and Denikin. Lacked unity and central coordination.     - The Greens: Peasant armies defending local areas.     - Key Events: Execution of the Romanov family ($17$ July $1918$); Fanya Kaplan's attempt to assassinate Lenin; the Red Terror by the Cheka (secret police).     - Red Victory: Attributed to Trotsky's leadership, control of the center, and effective propaganda.

WAR COMMUNISM AND THE NEW ECONOMIC POLICY (NEP)

• War Communism ($1918$–$21$)     - Features: Requisitioning of grain from peasants; labor conscription (ages $16$–$50$); nationalization of all industries.     - Effects: Agricultural production fell to $37\%$ of $1913$ levels; famine killed $5$ million people; black market supplied $70\%$ of food.

• The Kronstadt Naval Mutiny (February $1921$)     - 'Reddest of the red' sailors mutinied against 'Bolshevik tyranny' and starvation. Trotsky used $50,000$ troops to crush them; $500$ sailors were executed.

• The New Economic Policy (NEP) ($1921$)     - A 'retreat' to capitalism. Features: Reintroduction of a free market; grain requisitioning ended; private ownership of small businesses allowed.     - Nepmen: Traders who grew rich from new capitalism.     - Scissors Crisis ($1923$): Food prices fell while industrial prices rose; the government intervened to balance them.

• Lenin's Death and Legacy     - Lenin suffered multiple strokes starting in $1922$ and died on $21$ January $1924$ at age $53$.     - Significance: Masterminded the October Revolution, survived the Civil War, and transformed Marxism to fit Russia's needs.

QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION

• Recall Quiz Topics     - Identifies ruling family as Romanovs.     - Leader of Bolsheviks: Lenin.     - War lost in $1904$–$05$: Russo-Japanese War.     - Ship of $1905$ mutiny: Potemkin.     - Meaning of 'Kadet': Constitutional Democrats.     - 'Wager on the Strong': Stolypin's plan to make peasants independent farmers.     - Article $87$: Power of the Tsar to pass laws without the Duma.     - Reasons for Red Victory: Trotsky’s leadership, unified command, and central geography.     - Difference between War Communism and NEP: Requisitioning vs. free market/taxation.     - Significance of Fanya Kaplan: He was a Socialist Revolutionary who shot Lenin, triggering the Red Terror.

• Tsar Nicholas II and the Principles of Autocracy
    - Russia was ruled by the Romanov family, nearly 300 years in power.
    - Nicholas Romanov (Nicholas II) became Tsar in 1894 after Alexander III's death.
    - Nicholas was unprepared due to his upbringing.
    - He had characteristics of devotion to family, weakness in decision-making, and few strong political ideas.
    - He had a core belief in passing on absolute power to his son Alexei.
    - Definition of Autocrat: a ruler with absolute power; no controls on the Tsar's authority.
    - Governance structure involved appointing ministers from the aristocracy and senior Church leaders, commanding the army and navy.
    - Unlike Britain, criticizing the Tsar was seen as disloyalty.

• Reasons for Discontent in 1905
    - Peasants: Made up 85% of the population, faced extreme poverty, high taxes, and land hunger; mishandling of famines in the 1890s and 1901 added to their plight.
    - Industrial Workers: Experienced dangerous conditions, long hours, low pay; lived in overcrowded, dirty housing.
    - Middle Classes: Mostly liberals seeking a constitution and rights; feared radical groups.
    - Nationalities: 44% of the 125 million people were Russian; 'Russification' pressured non-Russians to adopt Russian culture.
    - Police State: The Okhrana (secret police) suppressed dissent; censorship banned radical ideas, leading to imprisonment or exile.

• Radical Revolutionary Groups
    - Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs): Aimed for government destruction through violence; assassinated Alexander II.
    - Russian Social Democratic Party (RSDP): Formed in 1898 on Marxist ideals, divided into:
      - Mensheviks: Believed Russia lacked the industrial base for a workers' revolution.
      - Bolsheviks: Led by Lenin, wanted immediate workers' revolution.

• Immediate Causes: The Russo-Japanese War (1904–05)
    - Conflict over Manchuria's resources; Russia expected an easy victory but faced major defeats.
    - Battle of Tsushima (May 14–15, 1905): The Baltic Fleet was destroyed, leading to significant loss of men and ships.

• Bloody Sunday (January 9, 1905)
    - Peaceful protest led by Father Gapon aimed to deliver a petition to the Tsar.
    - Demands included an 8-hour workday, trade union rights, and a constitution.
    - Soldiers and mounted Cossacks opened fire, killing over 100 protesters and wounding many, uniting public outrage.

• Events of the 1905 Revolution
    - Potemkin Mutiny (June 1905): Sailors revolted over food quality and harsh discipline; led to riots in Odessa.
    - Peasant Riots: Between 1905 and 1907, peasants burned down 3,000 manor houses, killing landlords.
    - Industrial Unrest: General strike from September 20 to October 2, 1905, paralyzed railways.
    - St Petersburg Soviet: Formed in October 1905, organized strikes under Lev Trotsky's leadership.

• The October Manifesto (October 17, 1905)
    - The Tsar granted civil rights, allowed political parties, and established the Duma to appease liberals but ignored workers' needs.

• Tsarist Repression and Survival
    - Pyotr Stolypin: Used extreme force, leading to thousands executed and deported to Siberia.
    - Reasons for survival included military loyalty, opposition disunity, and divisive effects of the October Manifesto.

• The Fundamental Laws (April 1906)
    - Established the State Duma with 500 delegates and an upper house to block laws while retaining Tsar's powers.

• The First Four Dumas (1906–1917)
    - First Duma: Dominated by Kadets, lasted only 10 weeks due to radical demands.
    - Second Duma: Included socialists; dissolved quickly by Stolypin.
    - Third and Fourth Dumas: Rigged elections led to more conservative dominance; criticized as dishonest.

• Stolypin’s Land Reform ('Wager on the Strong')
    - Aimed to create a class of prosperous farmers; migration encouraged; limited success reported.

• Lena Goldfields Strike (1912)
    - Protest against poor food quality led to military firing upon miners, killing hundreds.

• The Impact of the First World War on Russia
    - Significant military failures and economic burdens; soldiers faced shortages and suffered heavy casualties.
    - Nicholas II took command, making him responsible for setbacks.
    - War's cost led to inflation and labor shortages, worsening public hardship.

• The February Revolution and Abdication of the Tsar
    - Triggered by International Women's Day protests; soldier mutinies against orders; leading to the abdication on March 2, 1917.

• Formation of Dual Control
    - Emerged with Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet; struggle for power marked this period.

• The Bolshevik Revolution of October 1917
    - Lenin’s April Theses called for revolution and ending the war; uprising succeeded in October.

• Bolshevik Consolidation of Power and Civil War
    - Early decrees focused on peace and land redistribution; faced opposition leading to Civil War.
    - Trotsky’s leadership helped orchestrate the victory against disunited opposition forces.

• War Communism and the NEP
    - War Communism included requisitioning grain and nationalization; resulted in famine and unrest.
    - NEP introduced market reforms to stabilize the economy post-civil war; traders, Nepmen, flourished.

• Lenin's Death and Legacy
    - Suffered strokes leading to death in 1924; transformed Marxism to suit Russian conditions, significantly influencing Soviet history.