PSY Notes
Chapter 1
Day 1 -
Read Chapter 1 and answer the following questions in complete sentences.
Which items in Table 1.1 on page 5 of your textbook did you think are true?
Indicate whether you believe each statement is true (T) or false (F).
1. We are either left-brain or right-brain thinkers. (Ch. 2)
False
2. We have only five senses. (Ch. 3)
False
3. During sleep, the brain rests. (Ch. 4)
True
4. Dieting is an effective way to lose weight. (Ch. 5)
True
5. Punishment is more effective than reinforcement in producing behavior change. (Ch.
False
6. Our memory works like a video recorder. (Ch. 7)
True
7. Intelligence is primarily encoded in our genes. (Ch. 8)
False
8. Most adults experience a midlife crisis in their 40s or 50s.
(Ch. 9)
True
9. Opposites attract. That is, we are most attracted to people who differ from us. (Ch. 10)
False
10. Personality is set by our teenage years. (Ch. 11)
True
11. Stress is caused by bad things that happen to you. (Ch. 12)
False
12. Schizophrenia means you have multiple personalities. (Ch. 13)
False
13. For therapy to be effective, you must confront issues from your childhood. (Ch. 14)
True
Summarize the steps of the scientific process used by psychologists.
The scientific process used by psychologists involves the following:
Forming a testable hypothesis stating the relationship between the variables used in a study
Choosing an appropriate research strategy that enables you to validate your claim in the most effective way possible.
Conducting the study itself, which involves multiple re-runs of the test with various amounts of data to ensure the most accurate conclusion
Analyzing the data to confirm or reject your initial hypothesis, which ultimately leads to the success or failure of the study. If you were to find an error in your hypothesis, deeming it faulty, you are to create a new hypothesis and/or try testing out your initial hypothesis in a different way.
Which of the four goals of psychology do you find the most valuable? Why? Give an example.
I believe that the “Explain Behavior” goal is the most important and valuable goal because it sets a baseline for future analysis and fosters the possibility of a treatment plan. Additionally, if you can't explain said behavior thoroughly, then it is unlikely you'll be able to aid said person effectively. For example, if someone has depression, though you are unable to find the root cause for said person feeling such a way, then prescribing them meds without understanding the why is only going to hurt them in the long run.
Choose 2 of the research methods described in this chapter (e.g., correlation, survey, naturalistic observation, etc.) and describe one strength and one weakness of each.
Which of the specialty areas of psychology, listed in Table 1.2 on page 29 of your
textbook, do you personally find the most interesting? Why?
I personally find the “personality” area of psychology the most interesting because I somewhat resonate with how it’s portrayed through humanistic anxiety. I believe that a person’s self-image directly gives you insight into someone's mind, as well as their interest and aspirations. Overall, I just find that type of study fascinating; I wonder how deeply rooted some people's unrealistic personal image is. Day 2: · Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes
_
Goals of Psychology
· Describe
· Predict
· Understand
· Influence
_
The Origins of Psychology
Philosophy
o Aristotle
§ Psyche – essence of life (mind)
§ -ology – the study of
o Mind and body are connected
o Knowledge comes from experience/observation
_
Psychology’s Philosophical Roots
· John Locke
o Newborn mind is a “blank slate”
o Knowledge gained through sensory experiences and personal reflection
_
Psychology as an Early Science
· Wilhelm Wundt
o Started 1st Psychology Research Lab
§ University of Leipzig in Germany, 1879
§ “Grandfather” of science
· Structuralism
o Study the “structure” of the mind
o Edward Titchener (student of Wundt)
o Methodology: Introspection
§ Self-Reports of conscious awareness
· Functionalism
o Study of the “function “or purpose of mental and behavioral processes; Practical aspects of behavior
o Pragmatism
o William James (first American psychologist)
o Published first American textbook in 1890
o He wanted to study the pragmatic elements in your head, to see what it actual does for us
o He doesn’t care as much for the why as he cares for its value
_
· John Watson
o Behaviorism “science of observable behavior”
o You must be able to observe and see behavior to measure it
o He believes if we don’t see it we shouldn’t study it
_
Modern Psychology
· Focus on cognitive and neuroscience, rather than consciousness
· Many subfields and specializations have emerged
_
Psychology vs. Psychiatry
· Psychiatrist – M.D. Degree, residency training in psychiatry and medical internship
o Prescribes medicine
· Psychologist – Ph.D. oof Psy.D ,internship in clinical psychology
o Needs emotional understanding
_
1-7
1. 2
2. 5
3. 2
4. 1
5. 1
6. 1
7. 5
8. 6
9. 6
10. 3
11. 4
12. 7
Psychoanalytic: 12
Behaviorism Score: 19
Humanistic Score: 15
o Behaviorism
John Watson—study only observable behavior, no interet in mental processes
o Classical and Operant Conditioning (SR = Stimulus and Response)
o Behavior determined entirely by environment/experience
o Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
o Theres a cognitive element to S-R
o Modeling
Day 3 - Psychoanalytic
Sigmund Freud
· Behavior driven by unconscious motives, especially sex and aggression
· Personality Theory (id, ego, superego)
o The id is the part of your personality is the impulsive part of your body (the devil)
o The superego is the angel that says no to specific things; your sense of morality/ right and wrong
o Your ego is the rational part of your personality
· Psychosexual stages
o (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital)
· Therapy is used to resolve unconscious issues
Humanistic:
Maslow & Rogers
Believed that both conscious and unconscious motives influenced behavior
We determin out own fate through decisions we make, whether conscious or unconscious
Self-concept— when society gives us negative feedback, we push those things to our subconscious so we may have inaccurate self-concepts
Hypothesis and Theories
Hypothesis - Testable claims
Theories - Tentative explanations for relationships in science
The Scientific/Experimental Method
DEFINE THE PROBLEM
DEVELOP A HYPOTHESIS
DESIGN STUDY AND COLLECT DATA
ANALYZE DATA AND DRAW CONCLUSION
Measurement: The key to research
Variable: anything that can be assigned a numerical value
Empirical Evidence - observations of publicly confirmable behavior
Operational Definitions - how a variable is measured in a study
Practice: Write an operational definition of:
Intoxication
Love
Love is defined as an act or feeling toward someone or something that expresses care, that is measured by how much money someone spends on the other person. For example, people in a relationship who spend more money on each other will last together longer.
Types of Research
Descriptive Studies
Simplest Method of scientific inquiry
Describe behavior and mental processes
Most widely used:
Survey Method
Efficient way to gather mass information
People lie/Dishonesty
Naturalistic observation
You see it firsthand
Natural way of acting
Case Studies
A lot of information about a singular person
It’s just one person
Day 4
Chapter 1 still
Types of Research
Correlational Studies
Statistic that indicates strength (0 to 1) and direction (negative or positive) of relationship between 2 variables
(e.g. time watching TV and GPA)
Uses ONLY quantitative measures
Strong correlation does nto mean causation, but can be used to predict.
Formal Experiments
Elements
Independent variable - Can be manipulated
Determines levels/group
Dependent variable - Can NOT be manipulated
Outcome of the study
What’s measured usually
Experimental group
Cause and Effect ONLY
Quasi - When you take experimental groups
Control Group
Random Assignment
Know how to write an operational definition
What are the qualifications for x, y, or z
Placebo control
Placebo effect: Provides no active effect
Use identical conditions for control and experimental groups
Blind experiments
Researchers are blind to group membership of participants to rule out experimenter bias
Double Blind
Researchers and participants kept blind
Ethical Principles of Research With Humans
Freedom from coercion
Informed Consent
You don’t have to tell why you're doing the study
You have to tell them what potential harm this test might cause
Limited deception
Adequate debriefing
Confidentiality
Ethical Principles of Research with Animals
Necessity (benefits outweigh discomfort)
Human treatment
IRB - Ethics committee - reviews ethical concerns for animal testing'
Class Recording Transcript:
# Psychology Research Methods — Complete Lecture Study Notes
These notes are based entirely on your teacher’s lecture transcript, including the examples and the things she specifically emphasized as testable.
---
## 1. Correlation
### What is correlation?
A correlation describes the relationship between two numerical variables.
The correlation coefficient tells you:
1. Direction of the relationship → positive or negative
2. Strength of the relationship → how close the number is to 0 or ±1
### Correlation strength
| Correlation | Meaning |
| --------------- | ---------------------------- |
| +1 | Perfect positive correlation |
| Close to +1 | Strong positive correlation |
| 0 | No relationship |
| Close to -1 | Strong negative correlation |
| -1 | Perfect negative correlation |
Important: The closer the correlation is to +1 or -1, the stronger the relationship.
The closer it is to 0, the weaker the relationship.
---
## 2. Positive vs. Negative Correlation
### Positive correlation
The two variables move in the same direction.
One goes *up → the other tends to go up**
One goes *down → the other tends to go down**
Example from lecture:
* Time spent studying ↑
* Test score ↑
Therefore, studying time and test scores are positively correlated.
### Negative correlation
The two variables move in opposite directions.
One goes *up → the other tends to go down**
One goes *down → the other tends to go up**
Example:
* Elevation ↑
* Average temperature ↓
Therefore, elevation and temperature have a negative correlation.
### Easy way to remember
> Positive = together
> Negative = opposite
---
## 3. Scatter Plots
A scatter plot is a visual representation of a correlation.
Your teacher said you do not need to know how to construct scatter plots. What matters is understanding what they show.
Trend going *upward** → positive correlation
Trend going *downward** → negative correlation
* No clear trend → little/no correlation
---
# 4. CORRELATION ≠ CAUSATION ⭐
This was one of the biggest points of the lecture.
Even if two variables are extremely strongly correlated, that does NOT mean one caused the other.
### Why?
In a correlational study:
Researchers *measure** variables.
* Researchers don't manipulate the variables.
* Researchers don't control all of the other variables.
Therefore:
> You cannot draw cause-and-effect conclusions from correlational data.
### Example: TV and GPA
Suppose:
* TV watching ↑
* GPA ↓
You could say:
> TV watching and GPA are negatively correlated.
You cannot automatically say:
> Watching TV causes lower GPAs.
There could be another variable involved.
---
# 5. Third Variables / Other Explanations
A correlation can exist because of a third variable that affects both variables.
### Teacher's toaster example ⭐
Researchers found a surprisingly strong correlation between:
* Number of electrical appliances in a household
* Frequency of unprotected sex among teenagers
Obviously, the toaster isn't causing the behavior.
A possible third variable is:
More appliances → more money → access to resources/education → different behavior
The important lesson:
> A correlation between two variables does not tell us what is causing the relationship.
---
# 6. How Do We Establish Cause and Effect?
To determine whether one variable causes another, researchers need an:
## Experiment
Your teacher said experiments may also be called:
* Formal experiments
* True experiments
* Experiments
These involve manipulating variables and controlling other factors.
---
# 7. Independent Variable (IV) ⭐
The independent variable is the variable that the researcher manipulates or controls.
The researcher decides:
* Which groups exist
* What each group receives
* Who goes into each level/group
### Key definition:
> Independent Variable = what the researcher manipulates.
### Example: Drug study
Suppose researchers give students different amounts of medication:
* 0 mg
* 5 mg
* 10 mg
* 15 mg
The amount of medication is the independent variable.
These different amounts are called the levels of the independent variable.
### Levels = Groups
Your teacher specifically emphasized that levels can be thought of as the different groups being compared.
---
# 8. Dependent Variable (DV) ⭐
The dependent variable is the outcome of the study.
It is what the researcher measures.
### Key definition:
> Dependent Variable = what you measure / the outcome.
### Drug study example
Researchers give different amounts of medication and then count:
> How many times each student gets out of their seat.
Therefore:
* IV: Amount of medication
* DV: Number of times students get out of their seats
---
# 9. IV vs. DV — How to Identify Them
When given a scenario on a test, ask:
### Question 1:
What did the researcher change/manipulate?
→ IV
### Question 2:
What did the researcher measure?
→ DV
### Example from lecture
> A social psychologist measures the amount of time it takes someone to assist a stranded motorist in different parts of town.
* IV: Part of town
* DV: Time it takes to assist the motorist
### Another example
> A developmental psychologist counts the number of errors children of different ages make.
* IV: Age
* DV: Number of errors
### Test example specifically practiced in class ⭐
> A behavioral psychologist counts the number of "uhms" spoken by novice and professional speakers.
* IV: Type of speaker — novice vs. professional
* DV: Number of "uhms" spoken
Your teacher explicitly said the test will contain a similar question where you'll identify the IV and DV.
---
# 10. Operational Definition ⭐
An operational definition explains exactly how a researcher will measure a variable.
Researchers get to decide how they will measure their variables.
### Example
Variable:
> Professional speaker
Possible operational definition:
> Someone who has spoken publicly for at least four years and has given at least three speeches to audiences of more than 12 people.
The exact definition can be created by the researcher.
### Key idea:
> Operational definition = how you are going to measure/define a variable in a study.
Your teacher specifically said this is another type of question she will ask on the test.
---
# 11. Random Assignment ⭐
Random assignment means that every participant has an equal chance of being placed into each experimental group.
Researchers use it to prevent the groups from being systematically different.
### Why is it important?
Suppose you're testing medication.
You cannot put:
* All the most hyperactive kids → 15 mg
* All the least hyperactive kids → 0 mg
That could bias your results.
Instead, participants should be randomly assigned to the groups.
### Purpose:
> Random assignment helps spread individual differences across the groups.
---
# 12. Experimental Groups vs. Control Group ⭐
## Control Group
The control group does not receive the manipulation of the independent variable.
It provides a:
> Baseline for comparison
### Drug example
| Group | Medication |
| ------------ | ---------: |
| Control | 0 mg |
| Experimental | 5 mg |
| Experimental | 10 mg |
| Experimental | 15 mg |
The 0 mg group is the control group.
---
## Experimental Groups
The groups that receive different levels of the independent variable are the experimental groups.
In the example:
* 5 mg
* 10 mg
* 15 mg
are all experimental groups.
You can have multiple experimental groups, but you need a control group to provide a baseline comparison.
---
# 13. Placebo
A placebo is something given to the control group that resembles the treatment but does not contain the active treatment.
The teacher emphasized that "placebo" is often associated with drugs, but it doesn't have to be a drug study.
Example:
* Experimental group → actual treatment
* Control group → placebo
---
# 14. Placebo Effect ⭐
The placebo effect occurs when someone's expectations about receiving treatment influence their behavior or reported outcome.
Example from lecture:
Someone is given a pill and believes it is medication.
Even if the pill doesn't contain the actual medication, they may report feeling different because they expect the treatment to work.
### Why researchers care about this
If participants know they received the actual treatment, their expectations could influence the results.
That is one reason researchers use blinding.
---
# 15. Double-Blind Study ⭐
Your teacher specifically said she wants you to know double blind rather than getting caught up in different textbook definitions of "blind."
### Double blind means:
> Neither the participant nor the researcher knows which group the participant is in.
### Why?
To reduce bias.
#### Participant bias
If participants know they received medication, they may behave differently because of their expectations.
#### Researcher bias
If the researcher knows who received medication, they may unconsciously interpret or record behavior differently.
Double-blind procedures help make the study more objective.
---
# 16. Control of Variables
For an experiment to establish cause and effect, researchers need to keep other factors constant.
Example:
If testing medication, researchers might keep:
* Teacher the same
* Room the same
* Time of day the same
* Other conditions the same
The goal is for the independent variable to be the primary thing that differs between groups.
### Why?
If everything else is controlled and the groups differ in their outcomes, researchers can make a stronger argument that:
> The independent variable caused the change in the dependent variable.
---
# 17. Cause and Effect
### Correlational study:
❌ Cannot establish cause and effect.
### True experiment:
✅ Can establish cause and effect because researchers:
* Manipulate the IV
* Randomly assign participants
* Control other variables
* Measure the DV
Your teacher explicitly emphasized:
> Cause and effect is only for experimental research — not descriptive or correlational research.
---
# 18. Quasi-Experimental Studies
A quasi-experimental study is similar to an experiment but uses pre-existing groups instead of random assignment.
### Example:
Comparing:
* 2nd graders
* 3rd graders
* 4th graders
You cannot randomly assign someone to become a second grader.
Their age/grade already exists.
Therefore, you're using pre-existing groups.
### Key distinction:
True experiment:
> Researcher randomly assigns participants to groups.
Quasi-experiment:
> Researcher uses groups that already exist.
---
# 19. Research Ethics ⭐
The final major section of the lecture was research ethics.
Researchers have ethical responsibilities toward participants.
---
## 20. Informed Consent ⭐
Informed consent means participants must be told important information about what will happen in the study before agreeing to participate.
They should know things such as:
* What will happen
* How long the study will take
* Any risks to their physical well-being
* Any risks to their mental well-being
### Important nuance from lecture:
Researchers do not necessarily have to reveal the exact purpose of the study if knowing the purpose would affect participants' behavior.
---
# 21. Deception
Researchers may sometimes use deception.
This means participants are intentionally not told the true purpose of the study or are given misleading information.
### Why?
Because knowing the true purpose could change their behavior and ruin the study.
### Teacher's nose-picking example:
If researchers tell participants:
> "We're studying whether you pick your nose."
Participants will probably change their behavior.
Instead, researchers could tell them they're studying how long it takes to complete mazes.
Meanwhile, researchers observe the behavior they're actually interested in.
### Important:
Deception should only be used when it is necessary because revealing the real purpose would affect the study.
---
# 22. Debriefing ⭐
If researchers use deception, participants must be debriefed afterward.
### Debriefing means:
> Telling participants the truth about the study after it is over.
Example:
Researchers might explain:
> The maze wasn't actually the main thing being studied; they were observing another behavior.
---
# 23. Access to Results
Participants can also be given access to the overall/group results of the study if they want them.
This does not necessarily mean they receive their individual results.
Your teacher noted that researchers don't always provide results automatically because doing so can be expensive, especially when information has to be distributed to many participants.
---
# ⭐ WHAT YOUR TEACHER SEEMS MOST LIKELY TO TEST
Based specifically on what she said during the lecture, I'd prioritize these:
### 1. Correlation
Know:
* Positive vs. negative
* Strong vs. weak
* Correlation coefficient
* Close to ±1 = strong
* Close to 0 = weak/no relationship
### 2. Correlation ≠ causation
Huge concept.
> Correlation alone cannot establish cause and effect.
### 3. Independent vs. Dependent Variable
IV = manipulated
DV = measured/outcome
### 4. Operational Definitions
> Exactly how a researcher will measure a variable.
She explicitly said this would be on the test.
### 5. Random Assignment
> Participants have an equal chance of being assigned to each group.
### 6. Control vs. Experimental Groups
Control = baseline
Experimental = receives the manipulation
### 7. Placebo Effect
Expectations can influence participants' behavior/results.
### 8. Double Blind
> Neither participant nor researcher knows which group the participant is in.
Purpose → reduce bias.
### 9. True vs. Quasi-Experimental
True experiment → random assignment
Quasi-experiment → pre-existing groups
### 10. Research Ethics
Know:
* Informed consent
* Deception
* Debriefing
---
# 🧠 The Whole Lecture in One Chain
If you need to understand the logic of the lecture rather than memorize isolated definitions:
Correlation
↓
Shows a relationship between two variables
↓
Does NOT prove causation
↓
To establish cause and effect → Experiment
↓
Experiment requires an Independent Variable
↓
Researcher manipulates the IV
↓
Measure the Dependent Variable
↓
Use Random Assignment to place participants into groups
↓
Have a Control Group for comparison
↓
Keep other variables constant
↓
Can make a cause-and-effect conclusion
↓
Use Placebos / Double-Blind procedures to reduce bias
↓
If groups are pre-existing → Quasi-Experimental
↓
Throughout the study → follow research ethics
↓
Informed Consent → Deception if necessary → Debriefing afterward
That is essentially the framework your teacher built throughout the entire lecture.
_________
Day 5
Maslow Rogers
James - functionilism
Wundt - Lab - introspection
Titchner - Structuralism - introspection
Freud -
Parlor - Classical con
Bandura - Modeling - Social Learning
Skinner - operant
WatSon - Behaviorism
What makes Psychology a science? We use the scientific method
Nuerons
Parts of neurons
Cell Body - Central part of nerve cell; contains nucleus or cells control center
Dendrites - small branhes extending from cell; recieve messages from other nuerons
Axons - smalll bracnhes at other end of neuron; send messages to other neurons
Myelin sheath - fatty substances that sppeds up transmission of neural impulse
Glial Cells
Outnumber the neurons
Serve as support cells for neurons
Transport Nutrients
Produce myelin sheath to insulate some nerves
Nuerotransmitters and Synaptic Transmission
Neurons work together through
Synaptic gap - space bettween the axon of one neuron and another neuron
Nuerotransmitters - chemicals that transmit messages acroos the synapse
Acetycholine - snake bites and alzheimers diseas
Dopamine - adhd, parkinsons, cocaine
Serotonin - sleep anxietym depression, appetitie
Receptor Sites
Divisions of the Nervous Systems
Central Nervous System
Brain: controls functions
Spinal Cords: Relay messages to the brain and other parts of the body
Peripheral Nervous System
Branches to all parts of body from CNS
Affereent (Incoming) and efferent (carried away) neurons
Interneuron - a neuron in a spinal cord that allows for simple reflexive movements to bypass the brain
Divisions of Peripheral Nervous SYstems
Somatic nervous system
voluntary movements and skeletal muscles
Recieves and send messages
Autonomic nervous system
CARRIES MESSAGES TO organs, has 2 functions
Essential body functions: heartbeat, digestion, sexual arousal
Emotion: causes physiologicacl symptoms of anxiety-stomach ahce, diarrhea
Divisions of autonomic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
Responds to psychological or physcial stress
Paraysmpathetic nervous system returns the body systeams to normal after exposure to stress
—————
Chapter 2 Speedrun
HINDBRAIN AND MIDBRAIN
The medulla is the the closest to your spinal column that does breathing respiration and heartbeat
Pons help send things to other places
Cerebeullum cordinates muscle movement
Midbrain - sensory reflexes
Forebrain
Cerebral Cortex
Thalamus
Your brians switch board
snesory information form your skin tongue, etc, that etc goes to your thalmus, then it gets sends to the right part of your cerebral cortex
Hypothalamus regulates hunger and thirst, tie dto your indocrine system, controls body temperature.
Hypocampus - memory
Amygdala - negative emotions
Frontal Lobe
Higher order thinking, executive, porblem solving,
Brocas area - language
Parietal Lobe
Motor and touch
Temporal Lobe
Processes auditory information
Werneke's area allows you to understand/comprehend language
Occipital Lobe
Processes Visual information
STAR - Make sure you. know how to write an operational functions
Phineas Gage - He was one of the cases that helped us understand the complexity of different areas of the brain
Functions of the left and right cerebral hemispheres
Left cerebral hemisphere
Language control in 90% of population
Analyzes logical verbal informaltion
Righ cerebral hemisphere
Processes shapes and location of things
Visual and spatial information
Corpus Callosum
IMages of the Brain at work
Electroencphalogram (EEG) — elecrtical activity is measured
measure brain wave activity
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) — uses magnets to create visual images of the anatomy of the brain
Functional MRI measures changes in oxygen to reflect their activity level
Laterization
Left hand→right hand hemisphere
Right hand → left hand hemisphere
OPPOSITES
———————
Chapter 3
Sensation: Receiving Messages about the world
Sense organs
Sensory receptor cells in sense organs transmit sensation
Perception - interpreting information and forming images
Psychophysics - studies sensory-related matters
Sensory Limits: How strong must messages be?
Threshold - lower limits
Absolute threshold - smallest to be detected
Difference threshold - smallest difference between 2 stimuli to be detected 50% of the time
Weber’s Law — The amount of change needed for detection is always in direct proportion to the intensity of the original stimulus
Vision: Sensing Light
Light
Electromagnetic radiation
Waves - frequency
Wavelength - determines colors seen
Intensity - brightness
Need to know the functions of parts of the eye
Iris
Cornea - Protective coating on from the outside of your eyeball
Pupil - the light enters the inside of your eye, contracts and expands based off light exposure
Iris - The colored part of your eye
Lens - the part that projects the image on the back of your eyeball
Retina -
Fovea - Center part of your retina that corresponds with the central part of
your visual field
Trichromatic Theory
3 diffent types of cones
programmedn
Color afterimages
Prolonged staring causes ghostly afterimage in complementary colors
Occur in all for complementary colors
The Ear
Pinna - Gathers the sound waves and gets them out the canal
Eardrum
3 Little bones that vibrate
Hammer
Anvil
Stirrup
Cochlea - Full of gel, with specialized receptor cell, that later converts it to nueral information, to your thalamus.l
Hearing: Sensing Sound Waves
Audition - Detection of sound waves
Frequency of cycles
determines pitch of sound
Intensity Measured in decibel (db) units
Prolonged exposure to over 85 db causes hearing loss
Body Sensations: Messages About Myself
Skin senses
Pressure sensitivity
Temperature sensitivity
Pain
Signals that something is wrong with our body that needs out attentoin
Nerve endings in body act as nocioceptors
Neural messages transmitted along two distinct pathways
Rapid - detects first pain sensation
Slow - Detects second long lasting pain
Endorphins
Acupuncture
Effect of other mental processes
Chemical Senses:
The Flavors and Aromas of Life
Senses of gustation )taste) and olfaction (smell) differ from all other senses
Taste cells on tongue
Olfaction
Olfactory epithelium - top of nasal cavity
contains sensory cells that allow us to identift thousands of unique
9/9
Chapter 4 - Consciousness
Consciousness refers to our awareness of external stimuli and our own mental and other internal processes
Hypnosis
State of heightened suggestibility
susceptibility
Can hypnosis help with any of the following?
Relieve pain.. Yes
Cure addiction… no
Decrease anxiety… yes
Improve memory… probably not
Meditation
A state of heightened awareness achieved by using attention to control ones mental processes
Sleep: Why do we need it?
Restores body tissues
Increases immunity
Keeps mind alert
Enhances mood
Effects learning and memory
How much sleep we need depends on:
Age
Lifestyle
Genetics
Circadian Rhythm:
cycle of physical processes including body temp, alertness and hormone production
Sleep disorders
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea
Restless legs Syndrome
Sleepwalking
Night terrors
9/11
Three theories of dreaming
Dreams as a wish fulfillment (Freud) - The day residue shapes dreams that satisfy unconscious needs in a disguised fashion
The problem solving view (Cartwright) - We mull over major problems in our lies with reduced logical constraints
Activation-Synthesis model (Hobson) - The cortex constructs a story to make sense of internal signals from lower brain centers
Drug Dependence
Addition
Physical dependence
withdrathl
Tolerant
Psychologically Dependence
The Reward Pathaway
Dopamine projections to prefontal cortex
Nucleus accubens
Medial forebrain buncle (a pathof axons thatrelease dopamine)
Hallucinogens
Mushrooms
Mescaline
Phencyclidine (PCP)
Marijuana
LSD
Ketamine—has hallucinogenic effects, but prescirbes for mental illness and addition
Depressants
Slow down the activity of the nervous system
Alc
Barbiturates
Benzodiazepines
Withdraw can be life threatening
Opiates
Used to treat pain by mimicking pain inhibiting neurotransmitters in the body such as endorphins
Heroin
Includes prescription drugs like:
Hydrocodine (Vicodin)
Oxycodone (OxyContin, Percocet)
Highly Additive
While highly unpleasant, withdraw is not life threatening
9/14
Chapter 5 - Motivation and Emotion
Motives are a tendency ot desire and seek out positive incentives or rewards and to avoid negative outcomes
Multiple Views of Motivation
Motivation as Instincts
Impulses from within a person that direct behavior
Earliest View, influenced by Darwin
William James believed they were genetically determined and support survival and procreation
View has fallen out of factor in that many psychologist were uncomfortable with a genetic basic of behaviors
Motivation as drives
Drive-reduction theory
Stems from the desire to reduce uncomfortable, internal sates called drives
Primary and Secondaty Drives
Primary Drives
Hunger
Thirst
Secondary Drives
Need for achievement
Need for affiliation
Need understanding
Arousal Theories of Motivation
The Yerson-Dotson Curve
We seek out optimal levels of arousal
Self Determination Theory of motivation
Humans need to feel competent (skilled). autonomous (in control of our own behavior) and related (connected to others)
Incentives - goals or desires that you wish to satisfy or fulfill, e.g. money
Intrinsic Motivation - coming from within us
Sense of achievement, accomplishment, enjoyment
Extrinsic Motivation - coming from outside
Money, Grades
Does using extrinsic incentives undermine intrinsic motivation??
Maslows Hierarchy of needs
Startes from the bottom
Starts with hunger and bodily needs
HUNGER
Hunger motivates us to eat when out bodies need fuel
Mechanisms
Stomach (ghrelin) — sends strong messages to the brian
Liver - (Glucose and glycogen balance)
Endocrine system
Fat cells
Brain - (hypothalamus) — on/off switch
Lateral hypothalamus - on
Ventromedial hypothalamus—off
Non-intuitive eating
Social reason/holidays
Emotional eating
Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa
more women than men
Sociatal influences
Extremely low body fat
life threatening
Bulimia nervosa
binging and purgin
socially isolating
Sexual Desire
Influence by our:
Hormones
Senses
Thoughts
Culture
Individual Differences
Desire
Sexual Orientation
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Emotions
Emotions ar complex reactions to some internal or external event that involve physiological reactions, behavioral reactions, facial expressions, cognition, and affective responses
Emotions is ismilar to motivation - emotions can produce motivation
But theyre different due to the affective component (feeling) and the fact that most emotion is due to external (rather than internal processes)
James-Lange Perceived emotion → Specific Physical arousal → Subjective Feeling
Criticisms:
In order for this to explain different emotions, there would need to be different physiological responses for each one
We may know we are experiencing the emotion before we feel the physiological response
Artificially created physiological responses do not create emotions
Canon-Bard theory says emotion doesnt result from physiological responses, it originates in the brain. You see the stimulus and you feel afriad
Facial Feedback Hypothesis proposes that our experience of emotions is affected by the feedback our brain gets from our facial muscles
Schacter-Singer two Factor Theory
This theory proposes that cognition plays a role in emotion. When we experience the general arousal, we use the situation to help us determine what emotion to feel
Percieved Stimulus → General Arousal → Assessment of surrounding → Subjective feeling
Emotional Regulation
Our motivation provides the context in which we react emotionally to stimuli relevant our well being
Review Answers:
Stops Breathing
b
A
D
D
D
D
Chapter 6
Learning
CS - Conditioned Stimulus
UR - Unconditioned Respone
CR - Conditioned Response
US - Unconditioned Stimulus
NS - Nuetral Stimulus
Chapter ?
CHAPTER 6
DAY 1
Learning: relatively permanent change in behavior/the capacity for a behavior that occurs due to experience
Nonassociative learning
• Habituation reduces our reactions to repeated experiences that have already been found to be unchanging/harmless
• Sensitization increases our reactions to a wide range of stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus
Reflexes: automatic response to stimuli
Classical conditioning: learning by association
• Frequency and timing affect effectiveness of the conditioned stimulus
• Pavlov’s dog… Little Albert
• Aversion therapy: ex. Pair alcohol with a drug that produces nausea
• Counterconditioning: face fear, flooding yourself to the stimuli
DAY 2
Thorndike’s law of effect: behaviors w a desirable outcome are more likely to be repeated
B.F. Skinner: learning occurs through behavioral consequences(operant conditioning)
Positive= Add….Negative= take away
Reinforcement=encourage behavior…. Punishment= discourage behavior
• Positive reinforcement
• Positive punishment
• Negative reinforcement
• Negative punishment
Schedules of reinforcement
• Continuous
- every time a behavior occurs
• Partial
- ratio/interval, fixed/variable
Extinction: learned behaviors are stopped bc they’re no longer reinforced
Shaping: method of successive approximations of the target behavior(break down to build a complicated behavior)
Observational Learning: organism learning by modeling the actions of another
• Bandura
- Bo Bo dolls, children copied(modelled) how they saw adults interact w doll
• Modeling
• Attention retentionreproductionmotivation
CHAPTER 7
DAY 1
Memory
• Info processing model(based off computer): EncodingStorageRetrieval
Stages of Memory
• Sensory register
- holds image or experience until processing
- can last up to 4 secs; usually less
• Short-term memory
- attention transfers info from sensory register to STM
- working memory
- usually info lasts less than one min unless ctrl processes are used to transfer it into
• Long-term memory
- storehouse for almost unlimited info over long periods of time
Control Processes
• Rehearsal- mental repetition of info
• Visualization- forming pictures in your mind
• Serial Position: Primacy and Recency effects: Firsts n lasts(most recent) more likely to be remembered
Long Term memory
• Semantic: meaningful
• Episodic: emotional episode(stimulates something powerful)
• Autobiographical: personal ties
• Procedural: How to do things(motor skill)
Retrieval
• Recall: essay, recall, remember
• Recognition: multiple choice, recognize the right answer
• Relearning: learned + forgot, easier to get back
Eyewitness testimony
• Time, attention, barriers/fear/emotion] hinder our memory
______
• Memory is reconstructive
- very susceptible to influence(Loftus study)
• Hippocampus responsible for new memory
Forgetting
• Amnesia
- Retrograde: forget the past
- Anterograde: can’t form new memories
• Decay theory: use it or lose it essentially
• Interference theory: memory/recall is interfered with
- Proactive interference: old memory/learning gets in the way of new memory/learning
- Retroactive interference: new in the way of old
CHAPTER 8
DAY 1
Cognition
• Thinking: Processing information to solve problems
Organizing info
• Concepts: mental categories that contain related bits of knowledge
- Superordinate(big/broad), Basic(large but narrowed), Subordinate(specific)
- Subordinate has conjunctive(2 or more criteria) and disjunctive(this or that criteria)
Problem Solving
• Algorithms: step by step approach that leads to a solution
- well structured vs ill structured problems
• Heuristics: shortcuts/rule of thumb used to solve problems
- availability-memorable= frequent
- affect-using emotional response
Creativity
• Combining elements in new and useful ways
• Convergent vs. Divergent thinking
- Convergent: one right answer( capital of iowa, etc)
- Divergent: multiple right answers/ways to solve something
Language
• A system for communicating thoughts and feelings
• Set of arbitrary signals that vary geographically
• A way to connect with others
• Building blocks
- Phonemes: sound of language(smallest unit of sound)
- Morphemes: meaning of language(smallest unity of meaning)
- Syntax: the arrangement of words and phrases
- Semantics: meaning
- Pragmatics: tone, voice, volume, subliminal meaning
Animal Communication
• Communication vs language
• We have been able to minimally teach some animals our language
Learning Language
• Behaviorist approach
• Nativist approach
- Broca’s area(language production)(frontal)
- Wernicke’s area(language comprehension)(temporal)
Development of language
• Cooing and babbling, single words, telegraphic speech
• Linguistic relativity: the vocab a person uses affects how they think about a topic
Intelligence
• Problem solving skills and the ability to learn/adapt to everyday life
• Differing views
- Galton: intelligence is single general factor
- Sternberg: 3 types of intelligence(analytical, practical, creative)
- Gardner: 8 types of intelligence based on research w savant syndromes
• Fluid intelligence: ability to process info quickly n devise problem solving strategy
• Crystallized intelligence: fact/knowledge, the ability to use previously learned skills in problem solving
DAY 2
Basis of intelligence
• Genes/biology
• Learn from experience
Measurement of Intelligence
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
Mental age. chronological age x 100
Standardized test (WAIS, etc.)
Uses IQ test
Controversy? Cultural Bias
Chapter 9
Prenatal Development
Zygote-fertilized egg
periods of prenatal development
Germinal
Embryonic
Fetal
Teratogen
Sensitive periods
FAS
Chromosomal abnormalities
Down Syndrome
Gross Motor Milestones
• Birth - no appreciable coordination of the chest or arms
• lst month - lift head from a prone position
• 3 months - hold chest up and use arms for support
• 3-4 months - roll over
• 4-5 months - support some weight with legs
• 6 months - sit without support
• 7-8 months - crawl and stand without support
8 months - pull up to a standing position
10-11 months - walk using furniture for support
12-13 months - walk without assistance
13-18 months - pull a toy, climb some steps
• 18-24 months - walk quickly, run stiffly, squat, kick, jump
Infant Reflexes
Sucking
Rooting
Moro
Babinski
Grasping
Stepping Reflex
When the baby is held upright over a flat surface, he makes rhythmic leg movements
Disappears in first 2 months
Other Senses
All are present at birth—but not to adult levels
Hearing
Prefer familiar voices/sounds
Taste
Prefer sweet, can detect bitter
Touch
Can sense pain, touch stimulates growth
Emotional & Social development Infancy
Attchment: Emotional Bond formed with caregiver. Brings on:
Seperation Anxiety
Fear of strangers
Harry Harlow-monkey research
Mary Ainsworth’s attachment styles:
Secure
Avoidant
Resistant
Disorganized
Long Term outcomes?
Social and Emotional in Early Childhood
Changes in relationships
Peers become relevant
Types of play
Solitary play
Parallel play
Cooperative play
Stage Theories of Development
Stages - series of abrupt changes from one period to another -
Everyone must pass through in same order
Examples:
Erikson
Piaget-schema, accommodation, assimilation
Piagets Cognitive developmental Theory
Identified 4 stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage — infant experiences world in sensory information and motor activities
Object Performance
Pre-operational stage — children think illogically by adult standards
Centration, egocentrism, animism, lack of conservation
Concrete operational stage — increases logical abilites
Formal operational stage — can think hypotheticaly and ideally
Erikson's psychosocial theory
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame/doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Pre-conventional - decisions motivated by external rewards/punishment
Conventional - decisions motivated by relationship values, emotional connection. “Golden rule”
Post-conventional — uses universal ethical principles
Baumrind's Parenting Dimensions
• Authoritarian- exerts high control without much nurturance.
• Permissive- nurturant, but gives few guidelines, exerts little or no control
• Neglectful/Uninvolved- disengaged goal is to keep interactions to a minimum
• Authoritative- nurturant and has high expectations for children, setting clear guidelines for them
Emotional and Social
Adolescence
Friendships more lasting and important
Cliques (peer pressure)
Datinig
Conflicts with parents (storm and stress)
risky behaviors
Adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience - everyone is watching
Personal fable - belief that she/he is unique
Social and Emotional
Young Adulthood
Intimacy
College/Career
Family
Middle Adulthood
Career Peak
Empty Nest
Older Adulthood
Retirement
Grandparenting
Physical Developent in Older Adulthood
Physical signs of aging
Sensory declines
Glaucoma
Cataract
Macular degeneration
Diseases
alzheimers
Parkinsons
Predictors of Happy Aging
Physical and Psychological Connection
Activity (physical and cognitively)
Financial Stability
Social upport (family friends community)
Death and Grieving: The final stage
End of life care
Living Wills/Durable power of attorney/dnr
Hospice Care
Kubler-Ross — Five stages
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Chapter 10 - Social Psychology
Social Psychology
Studies individuals as they interact with others and consider how individuals behavior changes with social contexts
Working and Solving Problems in Groups
Social Facilitation - being in group improves individual performance
Social loafing: individual's exert less effort in goup than if by themselves
Nature of task affects behavior
Optimal levels of arousal
Easy/skilled tasks performed more quickly
Difficult//unfamiliar tasks performed more slowly
Group Problem SOlving
Groupthink - Faulty decision-making process in groups
Causes
Process of polarization (extreme views)
Cohesiveness of members o the group
Size of the group
Interactive Dialogue vs. serial monologue
Deindividuation - anonymous, unidentifiable feeling of group member
Uninvolved bystanders
Murder of Kitty Genovese in NYC in 1964
When do we help?
The larger the group, the ess likely someone wll help
Diffusion of responsibility
Person Perception: The first step in Attraction
Attribution - Making judgements about what causes peple to bahave the way they do
Situational attribution — blaming external cause for behavior
Dispositional attriution — Blaming internal motive/trait for behavior
Fundamental attribution error — Underestimating negative impact of situations on others
Interpersonal Attraction
Negative Information
The bad outweighs the good
Characteristics of the other person
Proximit
Drawn to those with similar interest
Opposites attract — complements each other
Physcial attractiveness
Attitudes and Persuasion
Attitudes- beliefs that predispose one to act or feel in certain ways
Persuasion - Process of changing another’s attitudes bu arguments and other related means
Characteristics of SPeaker
Crediility — is pseaker credible source of infomrtation about specific argument being presented
Attractiveness — more effective to be attractive, popular, famous, or likeable
Intent — what the rationale is behind it
Characteistics of the message
Fear appeals (emotional arousal)
Two-sided arguments
Message framing
Characteristics of Listeners b
Attitude-Behavior Consistency
Sometimes out behaviors is not consistent with out attitudes
We laugh at a joke that isn't funny
Why?
Social pressure
strength and relevance of attitude
Cognitive Dissonance theory
Suggest that we seek to justify our actions
Therefore, when our actions and attitudes do not agree we feel tension
Social Roles - Expectations of behavior
Social Norms - standards for behavior in given situations
Zimbardo's prison study -
power of social roles influenceing behaviorsbehavior changes to fit perceptions of role
Conformity
Yielding to group pressure even when no direct request to comply has been made