Buddhism and Jainism: Axial Age Religious Traditions in South Asia
Axial Age in China (Upcoming Topic)
On Wednesday, the class will examine the Axial Age in China, focusing on ancient Chinese philosophies and the idea of escaping the cycle of rebirth through spiritual insight.
Foundational Indian Religious Concepts
Samsara: The cycle of rebirths, which, as established previously, is generally considered undesirable in Indian thought.
Karma: The concept that one's behavior and actions in each life determine the conditions of subsequent rebirths.
Moksha: The escape from the cycle of rebirths, achieved through some form of spiritual insight or religious exercise.
Jainism (Mahavira)
Time Period: Emerged in the late century BC and early century BC, around the BC.
Founder: Mahavira (means 'Great Hero') who lived from approximately BC to BC (note: dates are approximate).
Background: Came from a comfortable upper-class background but renounced his societal position to become a wandering holy man.
Practices: He practiced extreme asceticism, including going naked and believing that gradual self-starvation was the way to escape samsara. He eventually died this way.
Core Teachings:
Sould in All Creatures: Preached that all living creatures, no matter how small or humble, possess a soul.
Absolute Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Advocated absolute non-violence towards all living things, taking extreme precautions to avoid harming even insects and earthworms.
Followers: His teachings survive today, and his followers are known as Jains. There are approximately Jains worldwide, predominantly in India, but also in other countries like the United States.
Connection: Jainism, like Hinduism and Buddhism, built upon the foundational concepts found in the Upanishads.
Buddhism (Siddhartha Gautama - The Buddha)
Origins and Early Life
Influence: Siddhartha Gautama was a significantly more influential religious teacher than Mahavira.
Foundational Concepts: His teachings also drew from the same core Indian religious concepts of samsara, karma, and moksha.
Contemporaries: Siddhartha Gautama was roughly a contemporary of Mahavira, sharing the same religious and cultural environment.
Nomenclature: He is known by several names:
Gautama: As seen in the readings.
Sakyamuni: Meaning 'Sage of the Sakyas,' referring to his clan.
The Buddha: Meaning 'the enlightened one,' a title he received later.
Birth and Upbringing: Born and raised as a prince, the son of a local ruler in what is now Nepal. The best-guessed birth year is BC.
Prophecy: Brahmin priests prophesied that he would become a wandering holy man, which his father attempted to prevent by sheltering him in the palace.
The Four Sights: According to Buddhist scriptures, these experiences outside the palace were pivotal:
An Elderly Man: Revealed the inevitability of aging and suffering.
A Sick Person: Showed the reality of illness and physical deterioration.
A Corpse: Highlighted the certainty of death.
These first three sights impressed upon him that samsara (life in the cycle of rebirths) is inherently suffering and not enjoyable.
A Wandering Holy Man: Dressed in yellow robes and with a shaven head, this sight suggested a path to escape through religious pursuit and renunciation of worldly life.
Renunciation and the Path to Enlightenment
Leaving Home: Siddhartha decided to flee the palace and become a holy man, abandoning his wife and young child. For him, escaping samsara and suffering became the ultimate priority.
Existing Framework: He operated within the existing Indian religious system, accepting concepts like reincarnation, the inherent suffering of samsara, the law of karma, and the possibility of escape through spiritual insight.
Initial Practices: Initially, he pursued extreme asceticism, similar to Mahavira, torturing his body and starving himself almost to death.
The Middle Way: He eventually realized that extreme asceticism was a false path. Instead, he adopted the Middle Way:
A moderate approach, neither self-torture nor a life of luxury.
A frugal vegetarian diet, sustained by begging for basic sustenance.
Primary religious practice focused on intensive meditation.
Enlightenment (Nirvana):
Legend states he gained enlightenment through deep meditation under a fig tree (later known as the Bodhi tree) around BC.
Through this insight, he realized he would never be reborn again, thus escaping samsara.
After enlightenment, he spent many years preaching his message to disciples.
The Core Buddhist Insight
Desire for Existence: The key insight was that the fundamental force keeping a person bound to samsara is their desire for existence itself—the desire to live and continue being.
Path to Escape: To escape, one must realize this truth and relinquish the desire for life. This does not necessarily mean self-killing, but rather an internal disengagement from the craving for continued existence.
The Four Noble Truths
Buddha formulated his teachings into the Four Noble Truths, which served as the foundation of his message:
Life is Suffering (Dukkha):
This concept was not entirely new, building on existing Upanishadic thought. Buddhists assert that life is inherently unsatisfactory.
Evidence of suffering: aging, sickness, death, and the endless repetition of these through the cycle of rebirths.
Historical Context: In Buddha's time, life expectancy was around years. Infant mortality was high, diseases were rampant, and most people lived at the margin of subsistence, facing constant threat of starvation. His teachings resonated deeply with the harsh realities of daily life.
Suffering is Caused by Desire (Samudaya):
The primary cause of suffering is our own desires: for health, youth, wealth, success, or relationships. These frustrated desires lead to pain and discontentment.
The most significant desire, which perpetuates the cycle of rebirths, is the desire for life itself.
The Way to End Suffering is to End Desire (Nirodha):
Logically, by ending all desires—including the desire for life—one can escape the cycle of suffering and rebirth.
The Way to End Desire is to Follow the Eightfold Path (Magga):
This is the practical discipline to eradicate desire through careful thought and conduct. It's a gradual process.
Components of the Eightfold Path: (While not required to memorize all, the general categories are essential)
Right Views: Correct understanding of the teachings.
Right Aspirations: Goals focused on eliminating desires, not on worldly wealth or power.
Right Speech: Careful and truthful communication.
Right Conduct: Ethical behavior, non-aggression, humility, and avoiding harm.
Right Livelihood: Earning a living in a way that aligns with Buddhist principles, typically as a monk through begging.
Right Effort: Working towards spiritual purification.
Right Mindfulness: Maintaining a correct mental state and awareness.
Right Meditation: Engaging in meditative practices to achieve insight.
Practical Applications: Includes avoiding killing any living creatures (humans or animals), leading to a strong preference for vegetarianism.
Monastic Life and Women in Buddhism
Monastic Ideal: In early Buddhism, only monks (and later nuns) who had renounced society to dedicate themselves entirely to religious pursuit could achieve enlightenment. The Buddhist community was primarily monastic.
Requirements for Monks/Nuns:
Celibacy: No sexual relations.
Renunciation of Family: If married, one had to leave their family.
Vow of Non-Violence (Ahimsa): Strict adherence to non-harm towards all beings.
No Property: Avoidance of accumulating wealth; living through begging.
Individual Responsibility: While monks gathered in groups for support, ultimately, each individual was responsible for their own enlightenment through their practice of the Eightfold Path and meditation.
Women's Role: Siddhartha was initially uncomfortable with women joining his group, fearing they would tempt male followers and hinder their celibacy. He was reluctant to admit women could achieve enlightenment.
Ananda's Intervention: His chief disciple, Ananda, confronted him, asking directly if women could be enlightened. Buddha reluctantly affirmed they could.
This led to the establishment of communities of nuns (bhikkhunis).
Controversy: The question of women's salvation remained controversial for centuries in various Buddhist sects, with some holding that a woman would first need to be reincarnated as a man to become enlightened.
Nirvana: The Buddhist Goal
Definition: Nirvana is the blissful state of release from the cycle of rebirths, achieved upon enlightenment.
Nature: It is not a conventional heaven (no clouds, harps, paradise) nor is it extinction or non-existence.
Description: Often described as a