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sympathetic impulses which inhibit certain digestive actions  Short and long reflex arcs: • Long: CNS involvement • Short: No CNS involvement o The enterogastric reflex  Regulates the rate at which chyme leaves the stomach  Reflex begins in the small intestine (entero) and ends in the stomach (gastro)  1.) duodenum fills with chyme  2.) sensory stretch receptors are stimulated  3.) sensory nerve impulses travel to CNS  4.) Nerve impulses inhibit peristalsis in stomach wall

Describe the pathway of food through the alimentary canal.
Explain the processes that occur during swallowing to prevent blockage of the airway, what phases are voluntary/involuntary, and how food is propelled to the stomach. Digestive system: Learning objectives
Explain what happens when normal anatomy and physiology of the digestive system is disrupted or not working properly (homeostatic imbalances!). • Hepatitis (A-F)= inflammation of the liver o Can be cause by virus (usually), alcohol/drug toxicity, wild mushrooms o Cirrhosis is the last stage of progression and liver transplant is the only option  Connective tissue regenerates faster than damaged hepatocytes which causes depressed liver activity •
• Issues related to defecation: o Diarrhea- results from a condition “rushing” food residue through LI (doesn’t have time to absorb water) o Constipation- food remains in colon for too long and too much water is absorbed o Poop info:  Consist of water, mucus, inorganic salts, sloughed-off epithelial cells, bacteria, products of bacterial decomposition, and undigested portions of food  Color produced from bile pigments (altered by bacteria)  Smell produced by bacterial compounds  Can indicate GI problems 
Explain how stomach acid and pepsin are produced and why these are important.
1. Explain what special features the stomach possesses to help protect it from stomach acid, describe how gastric secretion is regulated, and explain how gastric emptying into the small intestine is regulated.
2. Describe special features of smooth muscle that allow for the contractions needed for peristalsis and segmentation.
3. Explain the importance of the accessory organs, including specifically what these organs contribute to help promote the activities of the alimentary canal, where this occurs, and how the contributions are regulated and stimulated.
4. Understand how the defecation reflex occurs and is modified through conscious control.
5. For each nutrient type, describe where digestion (the beginning, all the way down to the monomers) occurs, what components are needed to help breakdown and digest the food, and where/how the nutrients are absorbed.
6. Describe absorption of vitamins, nucleic acids, electrolytes, and water in the digestive system.
7. Be able to apply what you have learned about the normal anatomy and physiology of the digestive system to situations where the anatomy and physiology is abnormal or dysfunctional.

Urinary System

Understand the main functions of the urinary system and describe the basic anatomy and organization of the main organs that make up this system. • Kidneys o Primary in long term blood pressure control. Act like a “pressure-valve” that prevents large changes in blood pressure due to high salt intake. Regulates BV. o Regulating water volume and solute concentration (osmolality) o Regulating ion concentration in ECF o Acid/base balance o Excreting metabolic wastes and toxins o Erythropoietin and renin production o
• Ureters • Urinary bladder • Urethra • 4 Major renal processes: o Glomerular filtration: filtrate= blood-cells and proteins o Tubular reabsorption: reclamation of goods (glucose, AAs, water, salt, etc.) o Tubular secretion: adding to trash o Water conservation: form concentrated urine; ,maintain BV
Describe the organization of nephrons.    • Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney and responsible for urine formation    o The main function of the nephrons and collecting ducts is to control the composition of body fluids and remove wastes from the blood, the product being urine    o
   • Nephrons consist of a renal corpuscle located in the cortex and a renal tubule located in the medulla    • Collecting duct is the last part of the nephron and passes urine to the papilla    • Once out of the nephron’s collecting duct, no further reabsorption occurs and urine formed is destined to be voided    • Papillary ducts drain fluid into the minor and major calyces (one minor calyx for each pyramid). The walls of the calyces, pelvis, and ureter contain contractile elements that propel the urine toward the bladder, where urine is stored until it is emptied by micturition.    • Structure of nephron and their functions:    o Renal corpuscle- filters the blood plasma. (Contains glomerulus and glomerular capsule)     Glomerular capsule receives fluid filtered by glomerulus from afferent arterioles. Passes this glomerular filtrate to the renal tubule for urine formation    
   o Renal tubule- modifies the filtrate (urine composition)     Consists of: proximal convoluted tubule, nephron loop (descending and ascending), distal convoluted tubule    o Collecting ducts- collect fluid from several nephrons     A shared structure    • 2 types of nephrons:    o Juxtamedullary nephron- long nephron loop, glomerulus closer to the cortex-medulla junction, efferent arteriole supplies vasa recta    o Cortical nephron- short nephron loop, glomerulus further from the cortex-medulla junction, efferent-arteriole supplies peritubular capillaries
\    Explain how filtration, reabsorption, and secretion of urine formation occurs and how these    processes are regulated in the nephron, including demonstrating an understanding of the flow of blood and    filtrate.    • Blood enters and leaves a kidney through the renal artery and vein respectively. Urine (containing waste filtered from blood) drains into the renal pelvis before moving into the ureter. Ureter transports urine to bladder for storage    • Blood supply reaches the cortex where millions of nephrons filter the blood. Urine is also formed in the nephrons and travels a path through the medulla/pyramids out to the ureters.    • Urine is collected in the calyces, into the renal pelvis and into ureter and then to bladder    •
   • Path of urinary drainage:    o
   • *High salt and high water mean that the filtration rate needs to slow down, to make reduced filtrate flowing through    • Blood Supply:    o Kidneys receive 20–25% of resting cardiac output    o The renal circulation is unique in having two capillary beds (the glomerular (vasa recta) and peritubular capillaries)—a portal system!o
   o Blood flows to the renal corpuscle in the cortex    • Nerve supply:    o Renal nerves primarily carry sympathetic outflow (SNS stimulation constricts renal arterioles to decrease renal blood flow and GFR)    o They regulate blood flow through the kidneys    • Urine formation:    o 1.) Glomerular filtration     In most systemic capillaries, filtration predominates at the arteriolar end and osmotic reabsorption predominates at the venular end     In the kidneys, the glomerular capillaries are specialized for filtration. The renal tubule is specialized to control movements of substances back into the blood of the peritubular capillaries (tubular reabsorption) or from the blood into the renal tubule (tubular secretion).     The first step in urine formation is filtration of substances out of the glomerular capillaries into the glomerular capsule     Glomerular filtrate is collected in the glomerular capsule after passing through tiny openings (fenestration pores) of the capillary endothelium     Only about 20% fluid enters capsular space. Other 80% remains in blood. (blood = glomerular filtrate)     Glomerular capillaries are fenestrated and surrounded by podocytes. When it comes to glomerular filtration, podocytes play an active role in preventing plasma proteins from entering the urinary ultrafiltrate by providing a barrier comprising filtration slits between foot processes.