In-Depth Notes on 19th Century American Expansion and Native American Displacement

Chronology of Key Events (1865-1900)

  • 1859: Charles Darwin publishes On the Origin of Species.
  • 1862: Morrill Act provides public land for higher education.
  • 1863: World's first subway system opens in London.
  • 1866: ASPCA is created.
  • 1869: Wyoming Territory grants women right to vote.
  • 1871: Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly published.
  • 1872: The Metaphysical Club meets in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
  • 1873: Comstock Law enacted; New York's Central Park construction completed.
  • 1874: WCTU organized; Chautauqua education movement launched.
  • 1876: Johns Hopkins University established.
  • 1879: Henry George publishes Progress and Poverty; dumbbell tenements introduced.
  • 1881: Booker T. Washington becomes head of Tuskegee Institute; American Red Cross founded.
  • 1882: First immigration-restriction laws are passed.
  • 1883: Brooklyn Bridge completed; Metropolitan Opera House built.
  • 1884: Mark Twain publishes The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.
  • 1885: Chicago's Home Insurance Building is completed, becoming the world's first skyscraper.
  • 1886: Statue of Liberty erected in New York Harbor.
  • 1887: APA is formed; Hatch Act supplements Morrill Act.
  • 1888: Edward Bellamy publishes Looking Backward.
  • 1889: Jane Addams founds Hull House in Chicago.
  • 1890: NAWSA is formed; Basketball is invented.
  • 1891: Stanford University opens.
  • 1893: Lillian Wald opens Henry Street Settlement in New York; Anti-Saloon League formed; World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago.
  • 1895: Stephen Crane publishes The Red Badge of Courage.
  • 1897: Library of Congress opens.
  • 1898: Charlotte Perkins Gilman publishes Women and Economics.
  • 1899: Kate Chopin publishes The Awakening.
  • 1900: Theodore Dreiser publishes Sister Carrie.
  • 1907: Henry Adams privately publishes The Education of Henry Adams.
  • 1909: NAACP founded.

The Conquest of the West (1865-1896)

  • The period after the Civil War marks a significant migration and settlement phase in the American West.
  • Turner Thesis: Frederick Jackson Turner claimed the frontier shaped American democracy and individualism. It emphasized a strong sense of opportunity and a distinct national character springing from westward expansion.
  • The frontier was characterized by the struggle for land between white settlers and Native Americans, where expansion met resistance from indigenous populations.

Native American Displacement

  • In 1860, 360,000 Native Americans lived in the trans-Missouri West, struggling against advancing white settlers.
  • Violent encounters and diseases led to rapid declines in Native American populations and culture. Treaties and policies attempted to confine tribes to reservations, often misinterpreted by the U.S. government.
  • The reservation system (established by treaties) failed to respect the social structures of Native tribes. Many tribes functioned around mobility rather than fixed land ownership.
  • Post-Civil War, the U.S. Army's aggressive tactics led to numerous conflicts, reflecting both military strength and moral dilemmas surrounding expansion and colonization.

Key Battles and Conflicts

  • Sand Creek Massacre (1864): Over 200 Cheyenne Indians were killed by Colorado militia, further escalating hostilities between whites and Native Americans.
  • Fetterman Massacre: Lakota Indians killed all soldiers involved in blocking the Bozeman Trail.
  • Battle of Little Bighorn (1876): Custer’s forces faced a significant defeat against the Sioux and Cheyenne, showcasing the military capability of Native tribes.
  • Wounded Knee Massacre (1890): The U.S. Army killed hundreds of Lakota Sioux, marking the end of large-scale armed resistance.

Federal Indian Policy

  • President Grant introduced a Peace Policy (1869) intending to reform how the U.S. government interacted with Native Americans, often failing to establish meaningful measures for peace or protection.
  • The Dawes Severalty Act (1887) aimed at assimilating Native Americans by allotting individual plots of land and promoting the farming lifestyle. This policy led to substantial loss of tribal land and identity.
  • The Ghost Dance Movement: A spiritual revival among Native Americans that sought to restore their way of life, viewed as a threat by the U.S. government leading to violent suppression.

Evolution of Western Economy

  • The mining frontier became a lucrative but volatile economy, fueling the rush for precious metals and establishing numerous boomtowns which often transformed into ghost towns.
  • Expansion of the cattle industry with techniques like the Long Drive and developments in transportation facilitated the movement of cattle to national markets, dramatically changing the landscape.
  • Agricultural expansion via the Homestead Act (1862) led to increased farming in the West, although many failed due to harsh conditions and fraudulent practices in land acquisition.

Cultural Reflections and Literature

  • Significant literature emerged from this era, including works from Mark Twain, Henry James, and Charlotte Perkins Gilman, which depict evolving American concepts of identity, society, and morality.
  • As western settlement expanded, it became a focal point for discussions on race, class, and cultural exchange, leading to new dialogues of what it meant to be American.

Conclusion

  • The closing of the frontier in 1890 signified a transformation of national identity, shifting the focus to new challenges within a fully settled nation, as delineated in Turner's themes. The legacy of westward expansion remains a complex narrative of ambition, conflict, and cultural negotiation that continues to shape America today.