Lecture #7: Learning (Chapter 8)
Be able to describe the main concepts of behaviorism.
Behaviorism emphasizes the study of observable behaviors and the relationship between stimuli and responses. It seeks to understand how behaviors are learned, reinforced, and modified through direct experience and interaction with the environment.
Who was the founder of behaviorism & what was his primary view in regard to the scientific study of psychology?
John B. Watson is considered the founder of behaviorism. He believed that psychology should focus on observable behaviors rather than internal mental states, advocating for a scientific approach based on measurable data.
What were 2 specific objectives of his behaviorism?
To establish psychology as a science by focusing on observable behavior.
To apply behavioral principles to modify behavior through conditioning techniques.
Be able to define stimulus.
A stimulus is any event or object in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.
Be able to define learning.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that occurs as a result of experience.
What is associative learning?
Associative learning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another, thereby leading to a behavioral response.
What are 2 types of associative learning?
Classical conditioning: Learning by association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus.
Operant conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of behavior, where behaviors are reinforced or punished.
What did Ivan Pavlov originally intend to study?
Pavlov originally intended to study the digestive processes in dogs, but his research led to the discovery of classical conditioning.
Be able to describe Ivan Pavlov's study of classical conditioning.
Pavlov's study involved ringing a bell before presenting food to dogs. Over time, the dogs began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone, demonstrating that they had learned to associate the sound with the impending presentation of food.
Be able to define classical conditioning.
Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a natural reflex, thus producing a conditioned response.
Know what the following abbreviations stand for & the definitions of the terms they represent: UCS, UCR, NS/CS, & CR.
UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.
UCR (Unconditioned Response): The natural response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
NS (Neutral Stimulus): A stimulus that initially has no effect on the response being studied, later becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS).
CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually elicits a conditioned response (CR).
CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.
Be able to identify the UCS, UCR, NS/CS, & CR in a classical conditioning scenario.
In Pavlov's experiment:
UCS: Food
UCR: Salivation
NS: Bell (initially)
CS: Bell (after conditioning)
CR: Salivation in response to the bell
When is the conditioning process most effective?
The conditioning process is most effective when the conditioned stimulus is presented immediately before the unconditioned stimulus, leading to a strong association.
What is a special case of classical conditioning that violates the principles of timing & repeated trials? Why would this exception have evolved?
Taste aversion is a special case where an organism learns to avoid a food after only one pairing with illness, even if the illness occurs hours later. This evolved as a survival mechanism to prevent the consumption of toxic foods.
What type of reaction can be conditioned after only a few trials?
A conditioned taste aversion can be established after only a few trials, particularly if the illness was severe.
Be able to define generalization, discrimination, & extinction.
Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.
Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond only to the conditioned stimulus.
Extinction: The process by which the conditioned response is weakened or eliminated when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.
Be able to describe Watson's Little Albert Study.
Watson's Little Albert study demonstrated classical conditioning in humans. A young boy (Albert) was conditioned to fear a white rat by associating it with loud, frightening noises. This fear generalized to similar stimuli, such as other furry objects.
What is systematic desensitization?
Systematic desensitization is a therapeutic technique used to treat phobias and anxiety by gradually exposing the patient to the feared object or situation while using relaxation techniques to diminish the anxiety response.
How is classical conditioning involved in drug addiction?
Classical conditioning plays a role in drug addiction by creating associations between the drug (UCS) and environmental cues (CS) that lead to cravings and withdrawal symptoms when exposed to those cues.
What is Thorndike's Law of Effect?
Thorndike's Law of Effect states that responses followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur, while those followed by unsatisfying consequences are less likely to be repeated.
Who was the founder of operant conditioning?
B.F. Skinner is recognized as the founder of operant conditioning.
Be able to define operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning is a learning principle where behavior is modified by its consequences, either through reinforcement (increasing behavior) or punishment (decreasing behavior).
In reference to operant conditioning, be able to define the following:
Reinforcement: Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.
Punishment: Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to enhance a behavior.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to strengthen a behavior.
Extinction: The reduction of a behavior when reinforcement is no longer provided.
Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce a behavior.
Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.
What is shaping by rewarding successive approximations?
Shaping involves reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until the final behavior is exhibited.
What is the difference between a primary reinforcer & a secondary reinforcer?
Primary Reinforcer: A naturally occurring stimulus that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water.
Secondary Reinforcer: A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer, such as money or praise.
Be able to define each of the following reinforcement schedules & identify each in a scenario.
Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs. For example, giving a dog a treat each time it sits on command.
Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time. For example, giving a dog a treat every third time it sits.
Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement after a specified number of responses. For example, receiving a reward after completing five tasks.
Variable-ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. For example, casino slot machines that pay out after a random number of lever pulls.
Fixed-interval: Reinforcement after a fixed amount of time. For example, receiving a paycheck every two weeks.
Variable-interval: Reinforcement after varying amounts of time. For example, receiving a surprise visit from a friend at random times.
Which reinforcement schedules produce more target behavior?
Variable-ratio schedules produce more persistent and stronger target behaviors compared to other reinforcement schedules.
What are some ways to punish more effectively?
Effective punishment includes:
Providing immediate feedback post-behavior
Ensuring the punishment is consistent
Applying punishment in a calm and controlled manner
Reinforcing alternative behaviors to reduce the behavior being punished.
What is observational learning?
Observational learning is a process in which individuals learn behaviors by observing others and the consequences of those behaviors rather than through direct experience.
Be able to describe Albert Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment.
Bandura's experiment demonstrated observational learning where children observed an adult behaving aggressively toward a Bobo doll. The children who witnessed the aggressive behavior were more likely to imitate it, showing that behavior can be learned through observation.
What are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons are brain cells that activate both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action. They are believed to play a role in learning through imitation and empathy.
Be able to define overimitating.
Overimitating occurs when an observer copies not just the relevant behavior but also irrelevant actions they observed during a demonstration. This can indicate a high level of observational learning.
In reference to mirroring behavior, what are children with autism spectrum disorder less likely to do?
Children with autism spectrum disorder are less likely to engage in imitative behavior, particularly in social contexts, which can impede their learning through observation.
Based on studies conducted by Bandura, what are the 4 conditions involved in observational learning?
Attention: The learner must pay attention to the behavior.
Retention: The learner must be able to remember the behavior.
Reproduction: The learner must be able to reproduce the behavior.
Motivation: The learner must have the desire to perform the behavior.
What is the difference between intrinsic & extrinsic motivation?
Intrinsic motivation: Engagement in a behavior due to internal satisfaction or pleasure derived from the activity itself.
Extrinsic motivation: Engagement in a behavior based on external rewards or outcomes, such as money, praise, or avoiding punishment.
What are the prosocial effects of observational learning?
Prosocial effects refer to the positive behaviors learned through observation, such as sharing, cooperation, and altruism, often exhibited in children who observe such behaviors in adults.
What are the antisocial effects of observational learning?
Antisocial effects denote negative behaviors learned through observation, such as aggression and delinquency, which can occur when individuals observe violent or harmful behaviors.
What does the research indicate in regard to violent television?
Research indicates that exposure to violent television may increase aggressive thoughts and behaviors in children, indicating that media consumption can influence social learning and behavior patterns.