Organized Crime Lecture Notes
David Bright Introduction
Professor of Criminology at Deakin University, specializing in organized crime, drug trafficking, terrorism, and firearms trafficking.
Holds a PhD focused on jury decision-making, bringing a unique perspective to criminological studies.
Originally trained as a forensic psychologist in Sydney, providing a strong foundation in understanding criminal behavior and mental health.
Extensive experience working in mental health services and prisons, including running a sex offender treatment unit for approximately ten years, offering practical insights into offender rehabilitation and management.
Research focus spans approximately fifteen years, demonstrating a deep and sustained commitment to understanding and addressing complex criminal phenomena.
Deakin Covert Networks Lab
Led by David Bright, the lab employs a network perspective to dissect and understand organized crime structures and operations.
Key focus areas:
Co-offending: Analyzing how individuals collaborate in criminal activities to identify patterns and roles.
Social network analysis: Utilizing network methodologies to map relationships and interactions within criminal groups.
Intelligence collection by crime analysts: Enhancing crime analysis through social network analysis to improve law enforcement strategies.
Outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMCGs): Investigating the operations and functions of OMCGs using police data and interviews with ex-members to inform disruption strategies.
Employs a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative (surveys) and qualitative (interviews) techniques to gather comprehensive data.
Previous project:
Conducted interviews with incarcerated individuals regarding illicit firearms ownership and their use in organized crime activities, providing critical insights into the illegal firearms market.
Strong engagement with law enforcement agencies at the national, commonwealth, and state levels in Australia, and collaborations with some overseas agencies, facilitating knowledge sharing and cooperative strategies.
Maintains partnerships with specialist OMCG disruption squads across jurisdictions, ensuring research is practically applicable and supports real-world law enforcement efforts.
Introduction to Organized Crime
Popular perceptions of organized crime are often shaped by media portrayals (movies, TV shows, books), which can be sensationalized and misleading, potentially skewing public understanding.
These perceptions influence public understanding of organized crime and can affect policy-making and law enforcement strategies, highlighting the need for informed perspectives.
The lecture aims to provide a scholarly perspective on organized crime, grounded in rigorous research and academic literature, to counteract misconceptions.
Topics covered include:
Definitions of organized crime: Exploring various definitions used by scholars, law enforcement, and international bodies.
Alternative ways of thinking about organized crime: Examining theoretical frameworks beyond conventional definitions.
Key characteristics of organized crime: Identifying common traits and features that define organized criminal activities.
Introduction to a network perspective on organized crime: Applying network theory to analyze the structure and dynamics of organized crime groups.
Brief History of the Term "Organized Crime"
The term was first used by the Chicago Crime Commission in the early 1900s as a response to growing urban crime issues.
Composed of business people, bankers, and lawyers concerned with the economic impact of crime.
Focused on addressing street-type crime that directly affected businesses in Chicago, reflecting early concerns about economic stability.
Carried racial overtones related to the types of offenders involved, indicating social biases influencing crime perceptions.
Late 1920s-1930s:
The term shifted to refer to gangsters, racketeers organized in gangs or syndicates, particularly during the Prohibition era.
References to criminal organizations with defined leadership structures emerged, marking a shift towards understanding organized crime as structured entities.
1930s-1940s (Great Depression, World War II):
The term largely disappeared from public debate due to the overwhelming focus on economic recovery and global conflict.
The development of the term was primarily situated in the United States, reflecting its historical context.
1950s: US Senate committee led by Estes Kefauver investigated organized crime in interstate business, bringing national attention to the issue.
The committee concluded that a "sinister criminal organization known as the Mafia" was involved, framing organized crime as a significant threat.
Organized crime was seen as a national issue, threatening communities from outside and potentially undermining societal stability.
The Mafia was identified as an Italian-American organization, reinforcing ethnic stereotypes in the perception of organized crime.
This ethnic association has significantly impacted public understanding of organized crime, perpetuating biases and stereotypes.
Definitions of Organized Crime
Claus von Lampe has compiled around 200 definitions of organized crime used by scholars, researchers, and law enforcement agencies worldwide, highlighting the complexity and lack of consensus in defining the phenomenon.
The existence of so many definitions indicates the problematic nature of defining organized crime, reflecting the diverse perspectives and contexts in which it is studied.
Some definitions emphasize material gain (financial profit), highlighting the economic motivations behind organized crime activities, while others include social or political power and influence, recognizing the broader impact of organized crime on society.
There is skepticism in the research community about the utility of the term itself, with some arguing that it is too broad and lacks analytical precision.
Examples of Definitions
A social system involving relationships between professional criminals, politicians, law enforcers, and entrepreneurs, indicating the interconnectedness of organized crime with various societal actors.
Organized crime as being primarily about financial profit, underscoring the economic imperative driving criminal organizations.
FBI definition: any group having a formalized structure whose primary objective is to obtain money through illicit activities, emphasizing the structural and goal-oriented aspects of organized crime.
Some definitions focus on the crimes committed, such as drug trafficking or extortion, while others focus on the groups involved, such as mafia or cartels, illustrating different approaches to defining organized crime.
UN Definition
UN Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime (2004) defines an "organized criminal group" as a structured entity involved in serious crimes for material benefit.
A structured group of three or more people, indicating a degree of hierarchy and coordination.
Existing for a period of time (continuity), suggesting a sustained operation rather than ad-hoc criminal activity.
Acting in concert to commit at least one serious crime, emphasizing coordinated action towards illicit goals.
Obtaining financial or other material benefit directly or indirectly, highlighting the economic motivations behind the group's activities.
The UN definition is influential but it defines a group, not the crime, which can be seen as a limitation in addressing the broader phenomenon of organized crime.
Problems with the Term "Organized Crime"
The main issue is with the "organized" part of the term, not the "crime" part, as the level of organization can vary widely across different criminal activities.
The term was not carefully constructed by social scientists but grew out of social and political understandings, highlighting its origins in practical and often biased contexts.
It was developed by politicians, the media, and others, indicating its susceptibility to sensationalism and political agendas.
It's important to consider what is meant by "organized" to avoid oversimplification and better understand the complexities of criminal structures and activities.
Different Interpretations of "Organized"
The organization of crime: the complexity and planning involved in certain crimes (e.g., importing cocaine) compared to more impulsive crimes (e.g., burglary), reflecting varying levels of strategic planning.
The organization of criminals: how criminals structure their interactions, form groups, or establish leadership, indicating different forms of social organization within criminal entities.
Social and political power: the use of power by criminals and groups of criminals, recognizing the influence that organized crime can exert on societal institutions.
Three Core Criteria for Understanding Organized Crime
Instead of a strict definition, identify key criteria to provide a more flexible and comprehensive understanding:
Criminal activity: the organization of crime as a set of tasks or activities needed to complete a crime (e.g., methamphetamine production), focusing on the operational aspects of criminal enterprises.
Criminal organization: how criminals organize themselves (hierarchical vs. other structures), highlighting the structural arrangements that facilitate criminal activities.
Illicit governance: social and political power deployed illicitly by organized crime groups (e.g., tobacco wars in Australia), recognizing the broader societal impact of organized crime beyond direct criminal acts.
Elaboration on the Three Criteria
Organisation of Crime
The provision of illegal or unregulated goods and services, indicating the market-driven nature of many organized crime activities.
This relates to illicit drugs, where there is consumer demand, illustrating how organized crime fills market gaps created by prohibition or regulation.
Organised crime groups seek to provide those to consumers, highlighting their role as suppliers in illicit markets.
An example is shown in illicit tobacco/vapes, were prices are high due to taxes, creating an incentive for illegal trade.
This has led to sale of illicit tobacco by organised crime groups, showing how tax policies can inadvertently foster organized crime.
Activities are continuous, with planning to avoid detection, emphasizing the sustained and strategic nature of these operations.
They require specialisation, indicating a division of labor and expertise within criminal organizations.
Criminal Organisation
How Criminals organise themselves into crime groups, exploring the structural dynamics of criminal entities.
Classic examples include the Italian and Colombian mafia, providing historical context and recognizable models of organized crime.
Remember that groups have different relationships with each other, whether this is personal, work of familial, highlighting the complex social dynamics within criminal organizations.
Members meet in convergent settings, pubs of gyms for example, illustrating how criminals integrate their activities into everyday life.
Modern organised crime groups are ethnically diverse, challenging stereotypes and reflecting globalization's impact on criminal networks.
Illicit (Extra-Legal) Governance
Social or political power that is exerted by criminal groups, usually involving violence, indicating the coercive influence of organized crime.
Examples of organised crime groups attempting to have social and political influence, where there are attempts to influence policy makers, politicians or local government, highlighting attempts to legitimize or protect their operations.
This is used to ensure compliance by other groups or members of other groups, so to monopolise illegal markets, demonstrating the anti-competitive practices of organized crime.
Thinking About the Organisation of Criminals
Three ways to think about structures within organised crime groups:
Pure Structures
Pure structures are theoretical ideas about how interactions might play out in organised crime groups, providing analytical frameworks for understanding organizational dynamics.
It is unlikely that any one group will show just one of these, but there can be hybrid types, or mixes of two or three different types of structures, reflecting the adaptive and evolving nature of criminal organizations.
Market Based Interactions
These usually involve one off transactions. Two people come together, they start a single transaction and form some kind of social contract, characterizing informal and transactional relationships.
An example is interactions that happen in retail level drug supply, where a consumer of illicit drugs meets with a deal, and purchases an amount of illicit drugs, pays for those and they go their separate ways, illustrating a typical buyer-seller dynamic.
Trust is impotent in these transactions. If you are buying of selling illicit drugs, you want to know the person you're dealing with is trust worthy, and not an informant of a police officer, highlighting the importance of credibility and reliability.
Hierarchies
This is where there are individuals that are at the top of the hierarchy, such as bosses or managers, demonstrating a clear chain of command.
This involves some kind of specialisation, suggesting a division of labor and defined roles within the organization.
Centralised chain of command means the chain of command goes up to a single point, that has control of the organisation, ensuring coordinated action and decision-making.
Networks
These are loose interactions between individuals, that are involved in different types of organised crime activity, characterizing decentralized and flexible structures.
Each actor in the network is actually autonomous, indicating a high degree of independence and self-direction.
Each of these characteristics can be seen in each group, suggesting that real-world criminal organizations often exhibit elements of multiple structural types.
Network Approach To Organised Crime
Organisation groups can be understood to be networks, allowing for the application of network theories and methodologies to study organized crime.
The interactions between members of organised crime groups can be networked as being one way or another, providing a basis for mapping and analyzing relationships.
It is possible to use network methodologies and network analysis to study and research organised crime groups, offering valuable insights into their structure and dynamics.
Six Degrees of Separation, which grew out of the Stanley Milgram Study, where he looked at how many steps it would take for anyone to contact someone else, illustrating the interconnectedness of social networks.
Criminal networks can be thought about as social networks, but they are different. You cannot lump them in with all other social networks. Social Networks that involve crime have key difference between the normal social networks that involve crime, highlighting the unique characteristics of criminal networks.
It's important to have covert settings in an illicit settings, which require key relational features. There also needs to be trust, a personal voucher, and the strength of the ties should be taken into account in illicit settings, underscoring the significance of trust and security in criminal interactions.
Crime is fundamentally a social problem that is about interaction between people, emphasizing the social nature of criminal behavior.
This graph shows what the number of papers are in journals of sociology, public health, and criminology running between 1980-2010. Criminology was very slow to take on the network idea, indicating the delayed adoption of network perspectives in criminological research.
Criminal Networks tend to be very loose and dynamic, they change over time. They can include hierarchy or more entrepreneurial or freelance type elements, reflecting the adaptable nature of criminal organizations.
There is typically a focus on security, with individuals limiting meeting each other. They will interact using telephones, but also encrypted apps to interact without others being there. There are also have buffers between each other, highlighting the use of technology and security measures to evade detection.
Strengths and Potential Vulnerabilities of Criminal Networks.
Strengths include facilitating the flow of commodities through a network. As opposed to a hierarchy or type of structure, it facilitates the flow of goods from person to person. They are flexible and dynamic, that are adaptable of individuals in networks will often have buffers between them.
Network can learn and improve over time. They can also adapt over time.
One of the main vulnerabilities is as the network becomes more efficient, they will become less efficient. As the number of different connections within a network increase, as it is possible for communication to happen easier. People can be identified by law enforcement easier, arrests can cascade.
There is no central control, with there being no-one controlling the criminal network. Organisations can become rudderless as they have no central managing capacity.
Because of the boundaries around there networks, they can be insulted from new ideas and new information
Social Network Analysis.
From a theoretical perspective, this is about the interdependence between actors in a social system. You can identify patterns in those relationships and say something meaningful about those relationship. For example, looking between people in this lecture, and analysing work places using this, identifying key and influential people.
This is a hypothetical network, the nodes represent people. Actors two and five here are much more connected. Actor four is a broker here. It is not a commodity, it is not a good from one side or the other.
This is an actual example of research, that was done a while ago, where methamphetamine network in New South Wales was looked at, extracted information from judge's sentencing, the goal was to connect different actors together and start to identify People that are important for one reason or another. K-18 is important as they are really well connected.