Triumph of Conservatism 1969-1988

Introduction

  • Chronological scope: 1969–19881969\text{--}1988, a period Foner labels “The Triumph of Conservatism.”
  • Starting point: the unraveling of the post-New-Deal “liberal consensus” around 19681968 (Tet Offensive, MLK Jr.’s assassination, urban unrest, law-and-order politics).
  • End point: Ronald Reagan’s two terms and the embedding of a new conservative – or “free-market / Reagan / neoliberal” – consensus.
  • Through-line: recurring tension between promises of order, freedom, and prosperity versus mounting distrust of government, economic dislocation, and culture-wars backlash.

Richard Nixon (1969-1974)

  • Ran in 1968 on “law & order”; spoke the language of conservatism yet often governed within liberal-consensus parameters.
    • Created or expanded: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), OSHA, National Transportation Safety Board, Endangered Species Act, Clean Air Act, food stamps, Social Security\text{Social Security} COLA’s.
    • “New Federalism”: block grants → federal →\rightarrow state →\rightarrow local, with fewer strings (states’-rights flavor).
  • Civil-rights record: mixed.
    • Southern strategy: appointed segregation-tolerant judges (C. Hainsworth, G. Carswell) to woo white South.
    • Yet school integration in the South jumped from 32%32\% → 77%77\% under his tenure.
    • Initially backed affirmative action (as wedge against unions/Democrats), later withdrew.
  • Supreme Court transformation → Burger Court.
    • Expected to be conservative; instead consolidated 1960s1960s precedents (e.g., Roe v. Wade, school-busing litigation).
  • Domestic flashpoints:
    • School busing backlash; Court ultimately limited cross-district remedies → re-segregation, esp. North by 1990s1990s.
    • Regents of U.C. Davis v. Bakke (1978): struck rigid minority set-aside; race may be “one factor.”
  • Social movements continue despite conservative mood:
    • Title IX (1972) & Equal Credit Opportunity Act: expanding women’s educational/economic rights.
    • Gay & lesbian activism: local elections, decriminalization, anti-discrimination ordinances → conservative alarm.
  • Foreign policy: détente + covert intervention.
    • SALT I, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, diplomatic opening to PRC (first U.S. recognition).
    • Continued CIA coups (Chile 1973 Pinochet; arms to Iran, Philippines, S. Africa).
  • Vietnam paradox:
    • “Secret plan” = Vietnamization, yet war widened (Cambodia 1970 bombing) → destabilized region; Khmer Rouge.
    • Kent State (4 dead) & Jackson State (2 dead) → peak campus strikes (>350350 campuses).
    • My Lai massacre (exposed 1969) + Pentagon Papers (1971) → erosion of trust → War Powers Act (1973) limits troop deployments to 6060 days w/o congressional OK.
    • Paris Peace Accords (1973) → U.S. exit; Saigon falls 19751975.
  • Watergate (1972-1974):
    • Plumbers break-ins (Ellsberg psychiatrist, DNC HQ); cover-up → Saturday Night Massacre.
    • U.S. v. Nixon: unanimous; president not above law → tape release.
    • House Judiciary vote to impeach → Nixon resigns Aug 1974 (only resignation in U.S. history).
  • Church Committee revelations: FBI domestic spying, CIA coups & assassination plots.
    • Net effect: liberal reliance on federal problem-solving undermined; conservative case for limited gov’t strengthened.

Economic Maelstrom of the 1970s

  • End of post-WWII hegemony:
    • U.S. encouraged rebuilding of allies (Japan, W. Germany, “Asian Tigers”).
    • Bretton Woods →\rightarrow strong \text{US}\tiedtogold<br/>tied to gold <br />\Rightarrowexportspricey→firsttradedeficitexports pricey → first trade deficit1971.</li></ul></li><li>Nixonendsgoldstandard(1971).</li></ul></li> <li>Nixon ends gold standard (1971)\Rightarrowfloatingexchangerates;volatility.</li><li>OPECoilshocks:floating exchange rates; volatility.</li> <li>OPEC oil shocks:1973 & 1979.<ul><li>Supplyshock→stagflation(simultaneous.<ul> <li>Supply shock → stagflation (simultaneous\uparrow prices & \uparrowunemployment).</li><li>Inflationavg.unemployment).</li> <li>Inflation avg.10\%p.a.;realGDPgrowthp.a.; real GDP growth\approx 2.4\%.</li><li>U.S.auto−makersloseground;by.</li> <li>U.S. auto-makers lose ground; by1980s Japan #1; imports 25\%ofU.S.market.</li></ul></li><li>Deindustrialization:<ul><li>Manufacturingshareofworkforceof U.S. market.</li></ul></li> <li>Deindustrialization:<ul> <li>Manufacturing share of workforce38\%\,(1960) \rightarrow 28\%\,(1971).</li><li>RustBeltfactoryclosures;Paterson,NJexample(librarysell−off,state−runschools).</li><li>Sunbeltgrowth→conservativepoliticalweight.</li></ul></li><li>Laborondefensive:<ul><li>Unionratefalls;realwagesstagnatepost−.</li> <li>Rust Belt factory closures; Paterson, NJ example (library sell-off, state-run schools).</li> <li>Sunbelt growth → conservative political weight.</li></ul></li> <li>Labor on defensive:<ul> <li>Union rate falls; real wages stagnate post-1973.</li></ul></li></ul><h4id="geraldford19741977">GeraldFord(1974−1977)</h4><ul><li>PardonedNixon(“healthenation”).</li><li>Inflationfight:“WIN”buttons(WhipInflationNow)–voluntarybelt−tightening.<ul><li>Recession.</li></ul></li> </ul> <h4 id="geraldford19741977">Gerald Ford (1974-1977)</h4> <ul> <li>Pardoned Nixon (“heal the nation”).</li> <li>Inflation fight: “WIN” buttons (Whip Inflation Now) – voluntary belt-tightening.<ul> <li>Recession1974\text{--}75 unemployment > 9\%.
  • Foreign policy: Helsinki Accords (1975) – legitimize post-WWII borders; human-rights pledge aiding dissidents.

Jimmy Carter (1977-1981)

  • Ran as Washington outsider; reflected distrust in federal gov’t.
  • Economic policy:
    • Prioritized inflation over unemployment; slashed domestic spending.
    • Deregulated airlines & trucking; early supply-side tax cuts for wealthier earners.
    • Backed Fed’s high-interest “Volcker Shock.”
    • Result: continued joblessness + soaring interest rates.
  • “Crisis of Confidence” / “Malaise” speech (1979): blamed consumerism; told Americans to conserve ("put on a sweater").
  • Human-rights pivot:
    • Cut aid to regimes with death-squads (El Salvador), signed Panama Canal transfer treaty (1999target),refusedtoattackSandinistas.</li><li>CampDavidAccords(1978):Israel–Egyptpeace(firstArabstatetorecognizeIsrael).</li><li>SALTII(1979)signedbutwithdrawnafterSovietinvasionofAfghanistan.</li></ul></li><li>IranianRevolution(1979):Shahoverthrown→IslamicRepublic.<ul><li>U.S.embassyseizure:target), refused to attack Sandinistas.</li> <li>Camp David Accords (1978): Israel–Egypt peace (first Arab state to recognize Israel).</li> <li>SALT II (1979) signed but withdrawn after Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.</li></ul></li> <li>Iranian Revolution (1979): Shah overthrown → Islamic Republic.<ul> <li>U.S. embassy seizure:66hostagesforhostages for444days;freedminutesafterReagan’s1981inauguration.</li><li>SovietsinvadeAfghanistan(1979)→CarterDoctrine(PersianGulfvitalinterests),grainembargo,Olympicboycott.</li></ul></li><li>Carter’smoderation/deregulationlaidgroundworkforReaganomics.</li></ul><h4id="seedsofaconservativeupsurge">SeedsofaConservativeUpsurge</h4><ul><li>Economicanxiety++culturalbacklash→appetitefor:lowertaxes,deregulation,stronganti−communism,moraltraditionalism.</li><li>ReligiousRight:<ul><li>Evangelicals/fundamentalistsalarmedbysexualrevolution,abortion(Roev.Wade1973),schoolprayerbans.</li><li>Leaders:JerryFalwell(“MoralMajority”),PatRobertson;brandedERA,abortion,pornographyas“forcesofSatan.”</li></ul></li><li>EqualRightsAmendment(ERA):<ul><li>PassedCongressdays; freed minutes after Reagan’s 1981 inauguration.</li> <li>Soviets invade Afghanistan (1979) → Carter Doctrine (Persian Gulf vital interests), grain embargo, Olympic boycott.</li></ul></li> <li>Carter’s moderation/deregulation laid groundwork for Reaganomics.</li> </ul> <h4 id="seedsofaconservativeupsurge">Seeds of a Conservative Upsurge</h4> <ul> <li>Economic anxiety ++ cultural backlash → appetite for: lower taxes, deregulation, strong anti-communism, moral traditionalism.</li> <li>Religious Right:<ul> <li>Evangelicals/ fundamentalists alarmed by sexual revolution, abortion (Roe v. Wade 1973), school prayer bans.</li> <li>Leaders: Jerry Falwell (“Moral Majority”), Pat Robertson; branded ERA, abortion, pornography as “forces of Satan.”</li></ul></li> <li>Equal Rights Amendment (ERA):<ul> <li>Passed Congress1972,required, required38states;conservativewomenledbyPhyllisSchlaflymobilized→failedratificationstates; conservative women led by Phyllis Schlafly mobilized → failed ratification1982.</li></ul></li><li>Abortionpolitics:“pro−choice”vs.“right−to−life”→permanentpoliticalcleavage.</li><li>Taxrevolt:CaliforniaProp13(1978)cappedproperty−taxhikes;templateforanti−taxpolitics.</li><li>Western/Sunbeltconservatism:SagebrushRebellionagainstfederallandcontrol;low−tax,anti−regulationethos.</li></ul><h4id="ronaldreagan19811989">RonaldReagan(1981−1989)</h4><h5id="electoralcoalition1980landslide">ElectoralCoalition(1980landslide)</h5><ul><li>Constituents:Sunbeltsuburbanites,blue−collarethnics,libertarians,ChristianRight,ColdWarriors.</li><li>Campaignthemes:Endstagflation,“MakeAmericaGreatAgain,”states’rights(launchedinPhiladelphia,MS–codedsignaloncivilrights).</li></ul><h5id="economicprogramreaganomicssupplyside">EconomicProgram(“Reaganomics”/Supply−Side)</h5><ul><li>Taxcuts:<ul><li>EconomicRecoveryTaxAct(1981):toprate.</li></ul></li> <li>Abortion politics: “pro-choice” vs. “right-to-life” → permanent political cleavage.</li> <li>Tax revolt: California Prop 13 (1978) capped property-tax hikes; template for anti-tax politics.</li> <li>Western / Sunbelt conservatism: Sagebrush Rebellion against federal land control; low-tax, anti-regulation ethos.</li> </ul> <h4 id="ronaldreagan19811989">Ronald Reagan (1981-1989)</h4> <h5 id="electoralcoalition1980landslide">Electoral Coalition (1980 landslide)</h5> <ul> <li>Constituents: Sunbelt suburbanites, blue-collar ethnics, libertarians, Christian Right, Cold Warriors.</li> <li>Campaign themes: End stagflation, “Make America Great Again,” states’ rights (launched in Philadelphia, MS – coded signal on civil rights).</li> </ul> <h5 id="economicprogramreaganomicssupplyside">Economic Program (“Reaganomics” / Supply-Side)</h5> <ul> <li>Tax cuts:<ul> <li>Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981): top rate70\% \rightarrow 50\%.</li><li>TaxReformAct(1986):toprate.</li> <li>Tax Reform Act (1986): top rate28\% (lowest since 1920s).
  • Deregulation & union confrontation:
    • PATCO strike (1981) – fired >11,000air−trafficcontrollers;signaledopenseasononorganizedlabor.</li><li>Bylate’80s,onlyair-traffic controllers; signaled open season on organized labor.</li> <li>By late ’80s, only11\%ofprivate−sectorworkersunionized.</li></ul></li><li>Spendingpriorities:<ul><li>Socialprograms(foodstamps,publichousing)slashed.</li><li>Corewelfarestate(SocialSecurity,Medicare,Medicaid)leftlargelyintact(politicallyuntouchable).</li><li>MassivePentagonbuildup⇒largestpeacetimedeficits.</li></ul></li><li>Outcomes:<ul><li>GDPgrowthreboundof private-sector workers unionized.</li></ul></li> <li>Spending priorities:<ul> <li>Social programs (food stamps, public housing) slashed.</li> <li>Core welfare state (Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid) left largely intact (politically untouchable).</li> <li>Massive Pentagon buildup ⇒ largest peacetime deficits.</li></ul></li> <li>Outcomes:<ul> <li>GDP growth rebound1983\text{--}88,inflationtamed,butnationaldebttripledto, inflation tamed, but national debt tripled to\$2.7\text{ trillion}.</li><li>Wealthinequality:top.</li> <li>Wealth inequality: top1\%shareshare\approx 40\%bymid−’90s(doubleearly’70s).</li><li>Deindustrializationaccelerates;blackunemploymentby mid-’90s (double early ’70s).</li> <li>Deindustrialization accelerates; black unemployment>20\%1981.</li><li>Savings−and−Loanderegulationcrash(late’80s).</li> <li>Savings-and-Loan deregulation crash (late ’80s)\approx \$250\text{ billion} taxpayer bailout.
Social Policy & Courts
  • Appointed Sandra Day O’Connor (1st female justice) + Scalia, Kennedy – ideologically conservative bench.
  • Bowers v. Hardwick (1986) upheld sodomy laws; Court also whittled affirmative-action enforcement.
  • Abortion survived: Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989, just after Reagan) allowed some state limits but didn’t overturn Roe.
Cold War & Foreign Affairs
  • Rhetoric: “Evil Empire,” SDI (“Star Wars”) missile shield; largest arms race since 1950s.</li><li>Interventions/CovertOps:<ul><li>Grenadainvasion(1983)–toppledMarxist−leaninggov’t.</li><li>Lebanondeployment(1982)→Beirutbarracksbombing(241Marineskilled).</li><li>CentralAmerica:backedElSalvadorjunta,Guatemalanmilitary,AngolanUNITA,Afghanmujahideen.</li></ul></li><li>Iran−Contra(1985−87):soldarmstoIran.</li> <li>Interventions / Covert Ops:<ul> <li>Grenada invasion (1983) – toppled Marxist-leaning gov’t.</li> <li>Lebanon deployment (1982) → Beirut barracks bombing (241 Marines killed).</li> <li>Central America: backed El Salvador junta, Guatemalan military, Angolan UNITA, Afghan mujahideen.</li></ul></li> <li>Iran-Contra (1985-87): sold arms to Iran\rightarrowdiverteddiverted\ to Nicaraguan Contras (Congress-banned).
    • 1111 officials convicted; Reagan claimed ignorance, approval ratings rebounded.
  • Thaw with USSR:
    • Mikhail Gorbachev (1985) meetings – Geneva, Reykjavík, Washington.
    • INF Treaty (1987): eliminated entire class of nukes in Europe.
    • USSR withdraws from Afghanistan; momentum toward Cold War end.
Legacy & Paradoxes
  • Re-defined “freedom” as free markets, low taxes, strong defense; turned “liberal” into pejorative.
  • Yet: government grew (spending, deficits), family/community stability eroded by market forces, regional & racial inequality widened.
  • Provided ideological frame later embraced by Democrat Bill Clinton (NAFTA, welfare reform, balanced budgets) – evidence of a prevailing conservative consensus.

Overarching Themes & Connections

  • Collapse of Trust: Vietnam (credibility gap), Watergate, Church Committee undermined liberal belief in benign federal power.
  • Economic Shift: from Fordist manufacturing welfare-capitalism to globalized, finance-driven, service-sector economy.
  • Political Realignment: South & West move Republican; union/ethnic “Reagan Democrats” abandon New Deal coalition.
  • Culture Wars: civil-rights & feminist gains catalyze religious and suburban backlash (ERA defeat, abortion, school prayer).
  • Continuity & Change: Like FDR’s New Deal, Reaganism forged a durable paradigm; but 2008 crash & 21st-century populism suggest its limits.

Key Statistics & Dates (Quick Reference)

  • 19681968: Tet Offensive; MLK assassination; Nixon elected.
  • 19711971: First U.S. trade deficit; gold standard ended.
  • 19731973: Paris Peace Accords; OPEC embargo; Roe v. Wade.
  • 19741974: Nixon resigns; Ford takes office.
  • 19791979: Iranian Revolution; Soviet invasion Afghanistan.
  • 19801980: Reagan elected; top tax rate 70%70\%.
  • 19811981: PATCO fired; Economic Recovery Tax Act.
  • 19871987: INF Treaty with USSR.
  • 19881988: Reagan leaves office – debt ≈$2.7 trillion\approx \$2.7\text{ trillion}, top tax 28%28\%.

Concept Glossary

  • Liberal Consensus: mid-20th-century bipartisan faith in activist gov’t (New Deal → Great Society).
  • Stagflation: simultaneous ↑\uparrow inflation & ↑\uparrow unemployment; supply-shock driven (1970s1970s).
  • Supply-Side Economics: lower taxes + deregulation ⇒\Rightarrow increased investment ⇒\Rightarrow growth (a.k.a. trickle-down).
  • Détente: 1970s cooling of Cold War tensions (SALT I, Nixon–Brezhnev).
  • Vietnam Syndrome: post-1975 reluctance to commit troops abroad; Reagan sought to “kick” it.
  • Religious Right: coalition of evangelical Protestants & Catholics pushing socially conservative agenda post-Roe.
  • Neoliberalism: ideology favoring free markets, privatization, fiscal austerity, deregulation; global ascendancy 1980s1980s.

Ethical & Philosophical Implications

  • Balance of freedom vs. equality: shifting from government-provided social rights to market-mediated liberties favored affluent groups.
  • Democratic accountability: Watergate & Church Committee reaffirm rule of law (U.S. v. Nixon), yet Iran-Contra shows executive secrecy endures.
  • Human-rights universalism vs. realpolitik: Carter’s moral diplomacy versus Reagan’s anti-communist alliances with authoritarian regimes.
  • Economic justice: supply-side promised broad prosperity but delivered heightened inequality – raising questions of moral responsibility in policy design.

Analytical Takeaways for Exams

  • Be able to trace the erosion of the liberal consensus through Vietnam, Watergate, stagflation.
  • Compare/contrast Nixon, Carter, and Reagan on economic and foreign policy; note bipartisan drift rightward.
  • Explain how cultural issues (ERA, abortion, school prayer) intertwined with economic conservatism to forge a new coalition.
  • Discuss how Cold War objectives shaped (and sometimes contradicted) human-rights rhetoric.
  • Use key legislation, court cases, and numerical data (tax rates, union density, unemployment) to substantiate arguments.