1st Qtr. — 1st Sem

A. Matter and Its Properties

Definition of Matter

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (volume).

Mass: Measure of the quantity of matter.

Weight: Relative mass or the force exerted by gravity on that mass.

Volume: The amount of space occupied by a sample of matter.

Types of Properties

Intensive Properties: Do not depend on the amount of substance (e.g., color, melting point, boiling point).

Extensive Properties: Depend on the amount of substance (e.g., mass, length).

Physical vs. Chemical Change

Physical Change: The material remains structurally the same before and after the change (e.g., melting, boiling).

Chemical Change: The composition of the substance changes (e.g., burning, rusting).



Phase Changes (Page 1)

Phase ChangeDescriptionExampleType of ProcessMeltingSolid → LiquidIce meltingEndothermic (absorbs heat)FreezingLiquid → SolidWater freezingExothermic (releases heat)VaporizationLiquid → Gas (evaporation/boiling)Boiling waterEndothermicCondensationGas → LiquidWater vapor on glassExothermicSublimationSolid → GasDry iceEndothermicDepositionGas → SolidFrost formationExothermic



Classification of Matter

A. Pure Substances

Element: Cannot be broken down into simpler substances.

Compound: Composed of two or more elements chemically combined.

B. Mixtures

Homogeneous Mixture: Uniform composition throughout (e.g., saltwater).

Heterogeneous Mixture: Non-uniform composition (e.g., sand and water).



States of Matter (Page 1 Table)

StateArrangement of MoleculesMotion of ParticlesKinetic EnergySolidTightly packed, fixed structureVibrate in placeLowLiquidClosely packed, not fixedMove around each other, flowModerateGasFar apart, no fixed arrangementRapid, random motionHigh



Common Household Products and Their Active Chemicals (Page 1)

Baking Soda (Sodium Bicarbonate, NaHCO₃):

Uses: Leavening agent, cleaning, deodorizing.

Vinegar (Acetic Acid, CH₃COOH):

Uses: Cleaning, cooking, pickling.

Gold Microparticles:

Used in expensive makeup products.

Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl):

Uses: Bleaching agent, disinfectant, strong oxidizer.



B. Ways of Separating Mixtures (Page 2 & Image)

Filtration: Separates solids from liquids/gases using a filter (e.g., sand from water).

Distillation: Separates liquids based on boiling points (e.g., purifying water).

Evaporation: Separates soluble solids from liquids (e.g., salt from seawater).

Chromatography: Separates components based on movement through a stationary phase (e.g., ink pigments).

Centrifugation: Separates based on density by spinning (e.g., cream from milk).

Magnetic Separation: Uses magnets to separate magnetic from non-magnetic materials (e.g., iron filings from sand).

Decantation: Separates liquid from solids or another liquid by pouring off the top layer (e.g., oil from water).



C. Accuracy and Precision (Page 2 & Image)

Accuracy: Closeness of a measurement to the true value.

Example: Thermometer reads 100°C when actual is 100°C.

Precision: Closeness of repeated measurements to each other.

Example: Multiple measurements of a table’s length are all 150.2 cm, but actual is 152 cm.

Summary Table:

Accuracy = Closeness to true value.

Precision = Closeness among repeated measurements.



D. Atomic Structure (Page 2 & Image)

1. Nucleus

Contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral).

Nearly all atomic mass is in the nucleus.

2. Electron Cloud

Electrons (negative charge) orbit the nucleus in energy levels.

Electron arrangement determines chemical properties.

3. Atomic Number and Mass Number

Atomic Number (Z): Number of protons; defines the element.

Mass Number (A): Total number of protons and neutrons.

4. Isotopes and Ions

Isotopes: Same number of protons, different neutrons (e.g., C-12, C-14).

Ions: Atoms that have gained/lost electrons (e.g., Na⁺, Cl⁻).

Formulas:

( Z = p^+ = e^- )

( n^0 = A - p^+ )

( A = n^0 + Z )



E. Atoms, Molecules, and Ions (Page 3 & Image)

1. Atoms

Basic building blocks of matter (e.g., H atom: 1 proton, 1 electron).

2. Molecules

Two or more atoms bonded together.

Diatomic: O₂ (oxygen gas)

Polyatomic: H₂O (water), C₆H₁₂O₆ (glucose)

3. Ions

Charged particles from gaining/losing electrons.

Cation: Positive (e.g., Na⁺)

Anion: Negative (e.g., Cl⁻)

Monatomic: Single atom (e.g., Mg²⁺)

Polyatomic: Multiple atoms (e.g., OH⁻)



F. Naming and Writing Formulas (Page 3 & Image)

1. Ionic Compounds (Metal + Non-metal)

Formed by electron transfer.

Naming: Metal (cation) first, then non-metal (anion, ends in “-ide”).

Example: NaCl = sodium chloride

2. Covalent Compounds (Non-metal + Non-metal)

Formed by electron sharing.

Naming: Prefixes indicate number of atoms (mono-, di-, tri-, etc.), second element ends in “-ide”.

Example: CO₂ = carbon dioxide

Prefixes for Covalent Compounds:

1: mono-

2: di-

3: tri-

4: tetra-

5: penta-

6: hexa-

7: hepta-

8: octa-

9: nona-

10: deca-



G. Stoichiometry and Balancing Equations (Page 4 & Image)

Stoichiometry

Stoichio: Greek for “element”

Metry: Measurement

Types of Calculations

Mole to Mole

Mole to Mass

Mass to Mass

Rules in Balancing Equations

Coefficients only in front of chemical formulas.

Never change subscripts in formulas.

Balance by formulas, not by elements.

Polyatomic ions can be balanced as units if unchanged on both sides.

Example (Page 4 Image):

( 4NH_3 + 5O_2 \rightarrow 6H_2O + 4NO )

Shows how to convert between moles of reactants and products.



H. Limiting and Excess Reactant & Percent Yield (Page 5 & Image)

Limiting Reactant

The reactant that is completely consumed first, limiting the amount of product formed.

Excess Reactant

The reactant that remains after the reaction is complete.

Percent Yield

Measures the efficiency of a reaction.

Formula:

[

\text{Percent Yield} = \left( \frac{\text{Actual Yield}}{\text{Theoretical Yield}} \right) \times 100

]

Example (Page 5 Image): If 41.3g of Fe₂O₃ is produced and the theoretical yield is 50.0g:

[

\text{Percent Yield} = \left( \frac{41.3}{50.0} \right) \times 100 = 82.6%

]