6.3 Indigenous Responses to State Expansion

Túpac Amaru II, born José Gabriel Condorcanqui, was a cacique in southern Peru, descended from the last Inca ruler.
He arrested and executed a colonial administrator for cruelty in 1780, igniting a major revolt against Spanish rule.
The revolt was initially supported by some criollos (Spanish-born individuals in the Americas) and spread throughout southern Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina.
Captured and executed, Túpac Amaru II's actions reflected a deep-rooted resistance against colonial oppression.

Nationalist movements arose globally in response to European imperialism from 1750 to 1900.
Leaders like Túpac Amaru II often had European-style educations and were influenced by Enlightenment ideals such as natural rights and nationalism.
These movements frequently resulted in anti-imperial resistance, leading to the formation of new states.

The Ottoman Empire's declining power allowed ethnic nationalism to thrive in the Balkans post-French Revolution.
Serbian independence (1815) and Greek independence (1832) were significant outcomes after long struggles against Ottoman rule.
The Treaty of Berlin in 1878 recognized the independence of several Balkan nations while placing Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The British Proclamation of 1763 aimed to protect Native American lands but was resented by colonists who sought expansion.
Following independence, the U.S. government disregarded Native American territorial rights, leading to displacement.

The Cherokee adopted aspects of European culture, including farming, governance inspired by the U.S. Constitution, and literacy efforts.
Despite these efforts, gold discovery in Georgia fueled forced relocations under the Indian Removal Act of 1830, showcasing the U.S. expansionist agenda.

Initiated by the Northern Paiute in the 1860s, the Ghost Dance was a religious revival that envisioned a return to a pre-colonial world.
Spreading among various tribes, the Ghost Dance culminated in the tragic Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890, marking the end of a significant resistance era.

In 1863, French Emperor Napoleon III aimed to impose a monarchy in Mexico by placing Archduke Maximilian on the throne.
Despite initial success, Mexican resistance led to the withdrawal of French forces and the execution of Maximilian in 1867, restoring Juárez to power.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny) was sparked by cultural insensitivity from British authorities regarding religious practices concerning rifle cartridges.
Although suppressed, the rebellion signified a shift toward Indian nationalism and led to the dissolution of the Mughal Empire, resulting in direct British rule (British Raj).
The Indian National Congress emerged in 1885 to voice grievances and advocate for self-rule.

Resistance to French colonialism began early, peaking with the resistance led by young Emperor Ham Nghi in 1884.
His exile did not quell the resistance, which persisted under leaders like Phan Dinh Phung until 1895.

The Liga Filipina, founded by José Rizal, was a pivotal reform movement that sparked nationalist sentiments leading to the Philippine Revolution of 1896.
The aftermath of the Spanish-American War resulted in the U.S. acquiring the Philippines, leading to the Philippine-American War, which lasted until 1902.

Indigenous Australians faced violent displacement following British colonization in 1788, as settlers ignored land ownership rights.

The Treaty of Waitangi (1840) aimed to protect Maori land rights, but subsequent British policies led to conflict and loss of land through the Maori Wars.

The Sokoto Caliphate was established in West Africa in 1804, combining Islamic and traditional practices, but was eventually subdued by British forces in 1903.

The Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement (1856-1857) resulted in famine rather than liberation from British rule.
The Zulu Kingdom, after initial military successes, ultimately fell to British forces during the Anglo-Zulu War.

Touré’s resistance against French rule in West Africa began in the late 19th century but ended with his capture in 1898.
The Mahdist movement in Sudan also reflected resistance to colonial rule, capturing Khartoum before eventual British defeat of the Mahdists in the late 1890s.

Led by the warrior queen Yaa Asantewaa, the War of the Golden Stool (1900) highlighted fierce resistance in the Asante Empire, ultimately leading to British victory and her exile.